Nuclear Physics

there is no difference b/w meson theory an yukawa theory of nuclear forces because yukawa predicted the nuclear forces as exchange of boson(messons) b/w neutron and proton which keep them bind in an atomic nuclei. so meson theory is just another name of yukawa's theory of nuclear forces.

Francium has an atomic covalent radius of 260 pm, is radioactive and very unstable.

Gamma radiation. Alpha radiation is the least penetrating, beta radiation penetrates and lasts longer than alpha but also "dies out" relatively quickly, but Gamma radiation will not only penetrate deep, but it will also stay long.

It depends on the type of the IC technology, Bipolar can withstand very high radiation doses, while the newer CMOS tend to be damaged more easily. Gamma radiation is an ionizing radiation and they possess enough energy to break atomic bonds and create electron-hole pair in silicone and silicone-dioxide materials, electrons disspate throught the lattice quickly while holes with much lower mobility remains and changes the characteristics of the device itself , like keeping the n-type ON and hence the circuits fails to perform its intended function

We usually find that uranium is used as fuel in nuclear reactors (though some use plutonium).

potato salad

dog hair

iPad case

beer

wool/polyester blend

soap

mud

cardboard

Jamaican coffee

dry wall

Ringer's lactate

meringue

safety glass

valve oil

sugar-free gum

egg yolk

lemon zest

teflon coating

nail polish

super glue

plush carpet

flan

bow rosin

caviar

Scientists are limited in downsizing tokamak reactors due to the need for a certain magnetic field strength to confine the plasma, control instabilities, and sustain fusion reactions. Additionally, scaling down the size of the reactor can lead to challenges in maintaining high plasma temperatures and controlling heat and particle loads on the materials. Researchers are actively exploring new designs and technologies to overcome these limitations for potential future reactors.

The equation for the beta decay of 137Cs:55137Cs --> 56137Ba + -10e

where the e is a negative beta particle or electron.

well none, its either gamma ray or gamma radiation, it has the same wavelength as an x-ray but higher energy level.

It is through radioactive decay that a quantity of an unstable element will decay over time. A material that is unstable will undergo this process, and the sample is said to be radioactive.

A quantum state with zero spin in physics is called a singlet state. This means that the total angular momentum of the system is zero. This term is commonly used in the context of quantum mechanics to describe certain states of particles.

Krypton-74 will most likely undergo beta decay, and the type of beta decay an observer will encounter will be beta plus decay. A proton in the nucleus will undergo a change and become a neutron, and a positron (e+) and an antineutrino (ve) will emerge from the reaction. The krypton-74 atom will transmute into a bromine-74 atom.

The equation will look something like this:

3674Kr => 3574Br + e+ + ve

No, transmutation does not occur in gamma decay. Gamma decay is a type of radioactive decay where a nucleus releases a gamma ray photon to reach a more stable state, but the identity of the nucleus remains the same. Transmutation involves the change of one element into another through various nuclear reactions.

Rate constant (zero order) k = [ln(2)] / t0.5 = 0.693 / 52(day) = 0.013 day-1 (or 0.013 per day)

absorb and slow down neutrons, such as control rods made of materials like boron or cadmium. By inserting these control rods into the reactor core, the rate of the fission chain reaction can be regulated, allowing for safe and controlled energy production.

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons bound together. It is essentially a helium-4 nucleus.

I have heard varying numbers from 33. something seconds to years.

To make fusion a source of energy we would need to be able to get hydrogen to start moving extreamly fast and that would take heating it up to 1,000,000 degrees and we cannot do that How to sustain the reaction for an indefinite period of time. We are currently able to hold a fusion reaction for just a few nanoseconds,

The theoretical Higgs boson would have zero spin.

The neutral and charged pions also have zero spin.

Two entangled particles, each with spin opposite to each other, would be a quantum state with zero net spin.

Atoms may also have zero spin, if they are in what is known as S-states (e.g. the ground state of hydrogen).

After two minutes, half of the radioactive atoms will remain. After another two minutes, half of the remaining atoms will decay, leaving 1/4 of the original amount. Therefore, 1/4 of the radioactive atoms will be left after four minutes.

It would take 6 hours for a mass of 12g of the substance to decay to 3g. This can be calculated by recognizing that for every half-life, the mass is halved. So, after 1 half-life (3 hours), the mass would be 6g, and after 2 half-lives (6 hours), the mass would be 3g.

The mass of the star and the related temperature of the stellar core determine the thermonuclear process type of the star. The stars of the solar mass produce energy from Hydrogen in the proton-proton cycle (two and three proton nuclei appear in intermediate stages of the fusion, end product is Helium); stars twice (or more) as heavy run the HNC cycle (Although Helium is here still the end product, Nitrogen and Carbon appear in intermediate fusion stages, too). Once the Hydrogen is used up, gravity collapse makes the temperatures rise until the next , heavier element fusion cycle is activated.

As the temperature rises, other numerous fusion cycles can produce all existing elements. The heaviest ones are created in the extraordinary high temperatures of the supernovae-explosions

U-235 can fission by absorbing fast or slow neutrons, but it has a much larger cross section for slow ones, that is it absorbs slow neutrons much more readily than fast ones. This enables moderated reactors to operate with low enriched (5% or less) or even natural uranium, whilst fast reactors must have much more highly enriched uranium, ie with more U-235. The ultimate is the nuclear bomb, where almost pure U-235 will fission entirely with fast neutrons, if enough of it is suddenly put together.