Nuclear Physics

The larger nuclei are unstable and undergo the disintegration process to gain the stability they emit particles as the radio active rays. the largest stable nucleus is for 82Pb (Lead) so nuclei having atomic numbers higher than 82 are Radioactive.

If you mean the charge of an alpha particle, it's +2 since they're made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, protons having plus 1 charge, neutrons having 0.

This is an extensive subject, I cannot summarise all the isotopes formed into one answer. I suggest you go to the Wikipedia link given below, if that is not detailed enough there are other tables and charts available, an internet search should find several.

In alpha decay, the nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thallium-230 undergoes alpha decay to produce an alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus) and become lead-226. The balanced nuclear equation for this process is: ([^{230}{81}Tl \rightarrow ^{4}{2}He + ^{226}_{82}Pb]).

It depends on whether the beta decay is beta- or beta+.

The alpha emission reduces the atomic number by 2. Beta- increases the atomic number by 1 while beta+ decreases the atomic number by 1. You do the math.

Radioactive decay is the process in which a nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy through ionizing radiation. When this happens, one of its neutrons breaks down into a proton and an electron. The electron then leaves the atom as a beta particle.

Specifying the diameter of fuel rods (1 cm) does not really allow estimates of the length of the reactor core in which they are used. (How many rods in a fuel bundle, and how many fuel bundles in the core?) Keep in mind that the core will end up in a shape that is engineered to use the fuel most efficiently. This means that really short and fat core geometry is out, and so is long skinny geometry. The ideal core shape will probably end up roughly cylindrical, and perhaps with it being roughly as long as its diameter. If you have a lot of fuel rods in a lot of fuel bundles, then they will be longer than a more modest amount of fuel rods in a smaller number of bundles. A reactor core in a shape that approximates a soda can or tuna can is going to be avoided, and a shape somewhat more like a soup can is better. Of the first two, the former would be a bit too long, and the latter too short. The "soup can" geometry will support better operation, more even fuel burn, and more desirable operating characteristics.

The strongest of the four fundamental forces is the strong nuclear force, which is responsible for holding the nucleus of an atom together. It is the strongest force at short distances within the nucleus.

Yes, gamma rays are ionizing but not as strongly ionizing as other forms of radiation such as Alpha, which is the strongest due to it's size, therefore making it more likely to collide with atoms and remove electrons. Gamma is only weakly ionizing because it is a small photon.

A fast moving electron given off as part of a nuclear reactions is a beta particle. Also, anti-electrons, known as positrons, are beta particles. Electrons are involved in beta- decay, along with anti-neutrinos; and positrons are involved in beta+ decay, along with neutrinos.

Yes. In fact, any large explosion(atomic or otherwise)which occurs on or near the ground will cause a mushroom cloud. This is because the explosion creates a mass of superheated air and debris, which will expand and rise upwards because its density is less, and its temperature higher, than the surrounding air; basically the same principle that causes hot-air balloons to rise. This is what gives you the iconic "mushroom" cloud. About the only time you wouldn't expect to see such a cloud is if the detonation occurs deep under ground or water, or at extremely high altitudes.

When uranium-238 (atomic number 92) decays by emitting an alpha particle, it transforms into thorium-234 (atomic number 90) because an alpha particle contains two protons and two neutrons, reducing the atomic number by two.

Nuclear surety is the responsibility of the US Nuclear Weapons Program to ensure all associated material, personnel, and procedures related to nuclear weapons are safe, secure, and under positive control.

No.

Gamma radiation is photons that emanate from the nucleus in response to a reduction in that nucleus' excitation state. The interaction of electrons, on the other hand, produces x-rays. X-rays, while still photons, are generally less in energy than gamma radiation. Though there is some overlap, and while it is true that a photon is a photon, gamma radiation and x-rays are not the same thing.

depends on the type of waste, that determines its halflife. some waste will be safe in just a few decades, other types will take millions of years.

if they would reprocess reactor nuclear waste so that uranium, plutonium, and other transuranics were recycled as fuel instead of staying in the waste; the remaining waste could be stored in a repository for 100 to 200 years and be safe after that.

The particle that carries the positive charge (a proton) is much more massive than the particle that carries the negative charge (an electron) The charges are equal in magnitude though of opposite polarity.

Well scientifically speaking the strong force causes protons and neutrons to be attracted to each other. Attractive forces between the protons and neutrons keeps the nucleus together. This is one of the four basic forces in nature.But when the protons and neutrons start to move farther apart the strong force gets weaker, and weaker the farther they move and will be repelled.

Yes, but only for nuclides that decay by beta+ decay dependent on electron capture or internal conversion. This is because the strong electric field can change the ionization state of the nuclide, removing inner shell electrons or freeing up inner shell levels. Examples are beryllium-7 and rhenium-187; there are others.

Alpha particles are Helium nuclei, two protons and two neutrons - mass 4 and charge 2. These particles have very little penetrating capability - they can be stopped with a few inches of air, a sheet of paper, your skin, etc. As a result, alpha particles have no chance of penetrating the metal shell of the Geiger counter and participating in the ionization pulses that it counts.

The radioactive element with a half-life of 4.5 billion years is Uranium-238. It is commonly used in radiometric dating to determine the age of rocks and materials on Earth due to its long half-life.

I'm assuming you understand the general workings of a GM counter to begin with. Basically, all of these ionizations occur, and positive and negative ions collect at the cathode and anode, respectively. The problem is that once the anode is full, the voltage stops. The molecules will recombine, but the electrons will enter a high-energy shell (instead of K, where there are openings). When the electrons de-excite, they release massive amounts of radiation in the form of x-rays. These x-rays then recirculate and start the "avalanche" all over. Halogen is used because it donates electrons to the positive ions so that they don't recombine with their own electrons. Additionally, halogens are typically good absorbers of UV radiation. Alcohol (organic gas) can also be used but the gas is expendable and runs out quickly. Halogens are used because they can recombine after the molecules dissociate.

An alpha particle is a helium-4 nucleus. When it captures a pair of electrons, it becomes a helium-4 atom. Alpha particles released in nuclear decay events quickly pick up a pair of electrons from the environment and become those helium atoms, and the atom is said to be electrically neutral.