Nuclear Physics

A beta particle is created when a neutron inside an unstable nucleus changes into a proton (or vice versa), losing energy and mass in the form of an electron (or positron), which is the beta particle.

Some particles in an electron include protons and neutrons, which are found in the atomic nucleus. Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus and are part of the atomic structure. Additionally, quarks are fundamental particles that make up protons and neutrons.

The answer to the question depends more on what you consider safe than anything else. The real question is whether any given exposure has sufficient benefit to outweigh the amount of damage that might be done. In some cases, we need to do things that expose us to ionizing radiation in order to stay alive and be healthy, and the amount of exposure is so small that the chance of problems coming from it is to small to worry about.

Any exposure to ionizing radiation can cause medical problems. There is no lower limit, beyond which it is absolutely safe. This includes not only nuclear radiation but other ionizing radiation, such as ultraviolet light, as well.

For example, exposure to sunlight can cause skin cancer, and the chance of getting cancer is directly related to the amount of sunlight. The only way to eliminate the chance of getting cancer from sunlight absolutely is to eliminate the exposure absolutely. The problem with this is that we need some exposure to sunlight to ensure good health, so eliminating it is more dangerous than limited exposure.

Similarly, exposure to beta or gamma radiation can cause medical problems, and the only way to eliminate these problems being caused by such radiation is to eliminate the exposure. The problem with eliminating the exposure is that it cannot be done. About one out of every 9000 potassium atoms is radioactive, and will give off gamma or beta radiation. But potassium is also a requirement for life, as a chemical, and eliminating it would quickly cause a person to sicken and die.

We put smoke detectors in our houses, because early detection of fires saves lives. The smoke detectors usually contain radioactive substances, but the increased threat from them is negligible compared to the increased threat from fire without them.

We are exposed to nuclear radiation in medical practice that is intended to benefit our health and extend our lives.

So to answer the question precisely, we would have to say that there is no absolutely safe level of radiation greater than none at all. What we have to do is assess each potential source of radiation and ask whether the risk of exposure is small enough that the actual exposure is overall beneficial.

Since the question of whether something is safe cannot be answered without some subjective evaluation, I will tell you my own belief. I believe that we are all subjected to as much radiation as we need, and probably more, already, assuming we use sunscreen or cover ourselves well. If any further exposure is to be done, there should be some very good, specific reason for it. So, the safe limit for further exposure is zero.

The property of half-lives that makes radioactive material problematic is that they can remain dangerous for long periods of time. This means that even after a substantial amount of time has passed, the material can still emit radiation and pose a threat to human health and the environment.

It's a liquid.

Yes, element 99 is real and it is called Einsteinium. It is a synthetic element that was first discovered in the debris of an atomic bomb test in 1952. It is radioactive and has no practical uses outside of scientific research.

Depending on the isotope:

- for 235U: 7,038.108 years

- for 238U: 4,468.109 years

etc.

Yes, plutonium is typically formed as a result of the alpha decay of uranium in nuclear reactors or in nuclear weapons. It can also be produced artificially in nuclear reactors by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons.

A gamma ray is released from atomic nuclei under certain conditions, and the generation of a gamma ray photon alonewill not change the mass of an atomic nucleus. The gamma ray is a form of electromagnetic energy. Other forms of radiation released from nuclei are particulate, and the particles released take mass from the nucleus with them when they go. Beta radiation takes a little, and alpha radiation takes a lot more.

Usually, 50%. That's what half-life means: the time required for 50% of the original radioisotope to undergo radioactive decay (or, alternatively, the time required for there to be a 50% chance that any given atom will have decayed). To be more specific: half of the original radioactive substance will have transformed into something else (it may still BE there, so in some sense it's "remaining", but it will be a different element or isotope). The reason for the "usually" is that it's a random process and for small numbers of atoms, the actual results may vary quite a bit from the statistically expected results. In particular, if there's only one atom, the amount remaining after one half-life period will be either 0% or 100% (50/50 chance of each).

It breaks into two parts, which are the nuclei of two lighter elements. The total number of protons remains the same, so the two resulting nuclei are of two elements with a total atomic number equal to that of uranium, ie 92. The actual elements formed are not the same in every fission, there is a range of different ones formed. Plotting a graph of the yield against atomic number you get two broad peaks, as shown in the article linked below. The electrons in the uranium atom are distributed between the two products depending on their atomic numbers (ie number of protons). The number of neutrons in the products don't add up because some neutrons are released in the fission and become separate from the resulting nuclei, in fact this is how the chain reaction is sustained.

Bismuth has recently been found to have a no stable isotope and has a half-life of 4.6 x 10^19 years. Also, the simple hydrogen atom (a single proton), is theorized to decay at a rate of 6.6 x 10^33 years. So far all tests to observe a proton decay have failed.

Gamma rays hitting the ground will penetrate to some degree as well as being scattered. Gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic rays, or high frequency photons. They will be scattered and absorbed by the ground, but some will penetrate to a given extent. Gamma rays come in different energies (different frequencies or wavelengths), and the higher energy ones (higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths) will penetrate more. Additionally, the components in soil will help determine how much absorption will be taking place per unit of distance through which penetration occurs. Scattering will occur throughout the soil being irradiated. Scattering is the "de-energizing" of the photons as they interact with the material they move through. Note that a gamma ray can scatter and lose some energy and move onward at lower energy. The scattering and absorption will occur when gamma rays penetrate dirt.

Could you please specify the area of motion you are interested in, such as physics, sports science, or biomechanics? This will help me provide more relevant article suggestions.

In this reaction we see an isotope of phosphorus,28P, undergo beta plus decay. In beta plus decay, a proton in the nucleus of an atom undergoes a transformation wherein an up quark becomes a down quark. This event, mediated by the weak nuclear force (or weak interaction), results in the proton becoming a neutron. When this happens, the atom changes from one element to another element in a process called transmutation. Here we see phosphorus become silicon, and the equation might look like this: 1528P => 1428Si + e+ + ve In this beta plus decay event, we see the phosphorus-28 atom transforming into a silicon-28 atom, and we see the positron (e+) and the neutrino (ve) kicked out of the nucleus on the back side of the event. Some links are provided below for extra investigation.

The beta decay of uranium-237 can be represented by the equation: (^{237}{92}U \to ^{237}{93}Np + e^- + \bar{\nu_e}) where (^{237}{92}U) decays into (^{237}{93}Np), an electron (e^-), and an electron antineutrino (\bar{\nu_e}).

The symbol for an alpha particle is 24He2+. The first 2 means that there are 2 protons. The second 2+ means that the net charge is +2, which means, since there are 2 protons, that there are no electrons. The result is that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus without its electrons, i.e. 2 protons and 2 neutrons, but no electrons.

Increasing temperature, changing the material into a different isotope through nuclear reactions, exposing the material to radiation, and catalytic processes can potentially shorten the half-life of a substance.

Plants acquire more leaves during summer to maximize photosynthesis and capture more sunlight for energy production. The longer days and increased sunlight provide optimal conditions for leaf growth, allowing plants to photosynthesize efficiently and support their growth and reproduction. This abundance of leaves helps plants store more energy and nutrients for future use.

Tritium, 13H, cannot decay by alpha decay because it only has one proton, and an alpha particle has two protons, along with its two neutrons. The lightest nuclide capable of alpha decay is lithium-5, 35Li, decaying by alpha decay to ordinary hydrogen, 11H.

13H decays by beta- decay to 23He, a rare form of helium, which is then stable.

The essence of the process is that gamma rays are passed through the object and measured, or they are passed through and backscattering is measured. The thickness can be calculated from the reduction in radiation. The nature of the object needs to be known, of course. The physical law involved is called Beer's Law, or the Beer-Lambert Law, or sometimes simply the exponential absorption law.

Alpha radiation consists of positively charged particles called alpha particles, which are essentially helium nuclei consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Alpha radiation is relatively low in penetrating power and can be stopped by a piece of paper or skin. However, it can be dangerous if inhaled or ingested.

unlikely, but it would need serious studies humans are unable to reach for hundreds of years, there are quite a few big big steps to that