Philippines

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Philippines

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A country of eastern Asia consisting of the Philippine Islands, an archipelago in the western Pacific Ocean southeast of China. Inhabited by Malays and various indigenous groups, the islands were first sighted by Magellan's expedition in 1521 and were colonized by the Spanish after 1565. They came under U.S. control in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. A commonwealth was created in 1935 and full independence achieved in 1946. The islands were occupied by Japan during much of World War II. Political turmoil led to the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos after 1965 and his exile in 1986 following the election of Corazón Aquino. Manila is the capital and the largest city. Population: 91,100,000.

Philippine Phil'ip·pine' adj.

 

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Discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the Philippine Islands were occupied by Spain from 1565 to 1898. This occupation was continuous, other than for a brief partial occupation by Great Britain from 1762 to 1764. As a result of the Spanish-American War, possession of the islands was assumed by the United States in 1898.

The Colonial Years

Spanish occupation introduced Christianity and western ideas in general to the Filipino people, while restricting the influence of Islam, primarily in Mindanao and nearby regions. After the United States assumed control of the islands, there was a greater focus on educational, commercial, and agricultural development of the Philippines, along with the introduction of democratic principles. Agitation for independence, which began under Spanish rule, continued in the Philippines under American control.

American interest in the Philippines was largely the result of a desire to expand the nation's economic influence into the Pacific and Asia. When the closing of the frontier seemed imminent by the 1890s, many Americans looked to Asia and the Pacific as golden opportunities to expand American trade and avoid future economic depressions like those of the past twenty-five years. American ambitions for trade, investment opportunities, and territory in East Asia, particularly China, were threatened by competition among the other great powers—England, France, Russia, Germany, and Japan. The Philippines were attractive because they could provide a military and commercial base from which the United States could protect its interests in China. As American relations with Spain deteriorated over the crisis in Cuba, the McKinley Administration saw an opportunity to deal with the situations in Asia and the Caribbean simultaneously.

On 1 May 1898, following the outbreak of war with Spain, Commodore George Dewey destroyed the aging Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. An American expeditionary force arrived in Manila seven months later, and Spain formally surrendered the city. After an armistice in August 1898, peace negotiations in Paris resulted in a treaty in December 1898 that ceded the Philippines to the United States in return for $20 million.

The acquisition of the Philippines gave rise to a protracted and bitter debate. Expansion into the Caribbean fit neatly into American perceptions of being the preeminent power in the Western hemisphere, but assuming control of a large, heavily populated territory thousands of miles away was a different and disquieting challenge. McKinley publicly claimed he had been opposed to acquiring the islands, but a night of reflection and prayer supposedly led him to conclude there was no alternative but to keep them. McKinley understood the Philippines would give the United States an Asian presence and make it easier to guard American interests there. Even so, McKinley was reluctant to assume responsibility for governing the islands, since there was a strong Filipino revolutionary army that had been fighting the Spanish and planned to govern the country. The president authorized Philippine acquisition, however, because he was concerned that another great power might seize the islands; because of the need to protect American commercial interests in Asia; and because he was convinced that the Filipinos could not govern themselves. While imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt applauded the decision and justified the move on the grounds that the United States had an obligation to teach the Filipinos self-government, others justified the action on the basis that the islands would be the American equivalent of Hong Kong, allowing the country to exploit trading opportunities throughout Asia and the East Indies. Many Republicans also recognized the political benefits of expansion, since it was a victorious war fought under a Republican administration.

But there was fierce opposition to acquisition of the Philippines. While the Senate debated ratification of the treaty, a strong anti-imperialist movement began to develop, which included some of the nation's most prominent citizens, including Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain. One anti-imperialist argument centered on the morality of imperialism, suggesting that it was a violation of an American commitment to human freedom. Others opposed it on racial grounds, fearing the admission of "inferior" Asian races into America. Some voiced concerns about cheap labor and cheap sugar flooding the domestic market, and the resources the country would have to expend to defend the new territories. Nevertheless, the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris on 6 February 1899, and the reelection of McKinley in 1900 seemed to indicate that the nation as a whole favored imperialism and the acquisition of the Philippines.

The country soon found itself embroiled in a much more difficult conflict than the one recently concluded with Spain. Filipino insurgents had been in rebellion against Spain before the Spanish-American War, and when the United States supplanted Spain, the revolutionaries directed their resistance against the new rulers. Generally ignored today, the Philippine War (1899–1901) was one of the bloodiest in American history. Some 200,000 American soldiers took part, and with 4,300 deaths, the United States suffered nearly ten times the fatalities of the Spanish-American War. The number of Filipinos who were killed remains uncertain but estimates range upward of fifty thousand. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, the rebels harassed the American occupation forces for more than three years. The guerrilla tactics used by the Filipinos prompted an increase in brutality on the part of American soldiers, who came to view the enemy as subhuman and who justified increasingly vicious and savage tactics to suppress the insurrection. Although the war continued into 1902, the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 signaled the turning point. Aguinaldo encouraged his supporters to stop fighting and proclaimed his allegiance to the United States, causing the rebellion to begin losing momentum. Although some fighting continued over the next four or five years, the United States had secured the islands.

At first, the military assumed responsibility for governing the Philippines. Then, during the summer of 1901, administrative authority was transferred to William Howard Taft, the first civilian governor of the territory. Taft promptly announced the intention of the United States to prepare the Filipinos for independence, and he permitted a good deal of local autonomy during his term of service. Taft established the Philippines Commission to serve as a legislative body, and a program of education was begun as well. American soldiers served as teachers until trained teachers could arrive from the United States.

American rule brought the construction of roadways, sanitary facilities and schools. Commerce, trade, and agriculture were given additional attention, and, in August 1907, the United States created the Philippine Assembly. Filipinos were given a majority of seats on the Philippine Commission under President Woodrow Wilson and gained greater autonomy during the administration of Francis Burton Harrison, the governor general from 1913 to 1921. The Jones Act of 1916 permitted the establishment of an elective senate and house of representatives to replace the Philippine Commission and Assembly. In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act mandated a ten-year transition to full independence for the Philippines.

As president, Theodore Roosevelt had referred to the Philippines as the Achilles heel of America in Asia and the Pacific, recognizing that the islands could be a tempting prize for another power such as Japan. With the Lansing-Ishii Agreement of 1917, the Wilson administration secured Japanese assurances that they had no ambitions regarding those islands. The Tydings-McDuffie Act, which promised the Philippines independence in ten years, can be further construed as an admission of American vulnerability there.

As population and economic pressures began to squeeze Japan in the late 1920s and early 1930s, that nation embarked on a program of expansion that led to war with China in 1937. That war had reached an impasse by 1941, leading the Japanese to decide on a southern strategy to secure the resources and markets of Southeast Asia and the East Indies. The United States had thus far given China limited support against Japan, but when Japan seized French Indochina in July 1941, the Roosevelt Administration placed a trade embargo on the Japanese. For the Japanese, this meant restoring good relations with the United States or proceeding with plans to secure the resources to the south. American efforts to get Japan out of China were unsuccessful, and the United States was unwilling to accept anything less. From The Japanese perspective, it seemed that the only option was to consider war with the United States. The location of the Philippine Islands further strengthened the possibility of war from Japan's point of view. The Philippines would make it easy for the United States to interdict shipments of vital raw materials from the East Indies. Therefore, to assure those materials would arrive safely in Japan, the Philippines would have to be taken as well, making war with the United States all the more unavoidable.

Ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese warplanes struck American air bases in Manila, destroying the small air force of General Douglas MacArthur while it was still on the ground. Perhaps more from ego than sensible military judgment, MacArthur fought the Japanese invaders with an inadequate army, suffering the loss of most of his forces. American and Filipino forces on Corregidor Island held out until 6 May 1942; the captured survivors were led on the infamous "death march" to prison camps. MacArthur, meanwhile, had escaped to Australia after promising to return to liberate the Philippines. Japan set up a puppet government in October 1943, with Jose Laurel as president.

In October 1944, MacArthur did return to the Philippines, along with 200,000 American troops. A combination of bad weather and fanatical Japanese defenders slowed the progress of the invasion, although the American navy decisively defeated the Japanese navy at Leyte Gulf. In February 1945, MacArthur fought a terribly destructive battle for Manila that cost the lives of more than a hundred thousand Filipino civilians. The Philippines were finally liberated on 5 July 1945.

Independence and the Struggle for Autonomy

One year later, 4 July 1946, the United States formally granted the Philippine Islands their independence, with Manuel Roxas as the new nation's first president. This was the first time an imperial power had ever voluntarily relinquished its possession of a colony. Independence, however, did not mean an end to Philippine dependence on the United States, nor was the U.S. willing to cut its ties completely. Concerned about the ability of the Philippines to recover from the ravages of the war, and with the growing exigencies of the Cold War, the United States soon incorporated the islands into its expanding military and economic fold. On 17 March 1947, the United States concluded an agreement with the Philippines that gave the United States leases on military bases there for ninety-nine years. The United States also monitored the Filipino government, often urging reforms that would end corruption and mismanagement. The Philippines would remain an important location for American air force and naval bases until the early 1990s. American loans, foreign aid, and trade agreements helped support the Philippine economy. A security pact between the United States and the Philippines was signed on 30 August 1951.

The war in Vietnam and continued American presence in the Philippines led to anti-American protests and riots in Manila and elsewhere in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These contributed to the autocracy of Ferdinand Marcos, who, in his second term as president, declared martial law and established a dictatorship in 1972. Although American investments and economic interests in the islands had fallen behind those of the Japanese and Taiwanese, the importance of the American military bases there led the Nixon and Ford administrations to keep silent about the end of democracy in the Philippines.

Increasing criticism of the government in the mid-1970s led to greater repression by Marcos; the policy of the United States was to turn a blind eye in that direction. Unwilling to risk talks about the military bases, the administration of Jimmy Carter carefully avoided criticizing the human rights record of Marcos, despite killings by the Philippine military and the imprisonment of thousands. The Carter administration reached a new accord regarding American military bases with the Marcos regime in 1979, and American economic support continued as well.

Growing unrest in the Philippines created a problem for the Reagan administration. Despite Marcos's repressive regime, Reagan liked the Philippine leader personally, having met him first in 1969, and continued to support him because of the Cold War. But the 1983 assassination of Benigno Aquino, Marcos's chief political opponent, made it clear that American strategic and economic interests were in jeopardy. A significant American financial commitment remained in place, while strategic interests dictated keeping Clark Air Field and the Subic Bay Naval Station, both of which were under leases granted by Marcos and due to expire in 1991. Marcos was pressured to implement badly needed reforms, but the Filipino leader continued his repressive ways. This led to more protests, the revival of a communist insurgency by a Maoist group called the Nationalist People's Army, and renewed attacks by Muslim guerillas.

Marcos tried to win back American support by staging elections in February 1986, which he intended to control. The opposition candidate was Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her calls for reform drew widespread support. Relying on massive election fraud, Marcos claimed victory, which was at first upheld by the Reagan White House. But the fraudulent nature of the election was so obvious that the administration had to back off from its support of Marcos when it became evident that any attempt by Marcos to stay in power would result in civil war. Reagan began to urge Marcos to step aside. Marcos finally gave in to American pressure and fled to Hawaii on an American Air Force transport. Corazon Aquino became president of the Philippines.

Although she reestablished democratic institutions, Aquino could not solve the economic problems of her country. Nor could she win the support of the military and the Filipino elite, halt the rampant corruption, or stem the communist insurgency that had now spread to nearly every province. She did implement some political and economic reforms, survived more than a half dozen coup attempts, and supported the 1992 election of her successor, General Fidel Ramos, one of the early defectors from Marcos. Ramos attempted to revitalize the economy, eliminate corruption, and attract foreign investors.

American strategic influence in the Philippines began to diminish in the 1990s. American financial aid stopped almost completely, partly because of domestic economic woes in the first part of the decade. Clark Air Force Base was abandoned after it was destroyed by a volcanic eruption, and, when no agreement on acceptable financial compensation could be reached, the Philippine Senate refused to renew the lease on the naval base at Subic Bay. These actions gave the country greater autonomy, while reflecting its lessened importance in American foreign policy.

A twenty-four-year insurrection led by the Moro National Liberation Front came to an end in 1996, with the signing of a peace accord that would grant the movement greater independence in many of that island's provinces. However, a splinter group, the militant Moro Islamic Liberation Front, rejected the agreement and continued to resist the government.

Joseph Estrada, a popular, though politically inexperienced motion picture actor, replaced Ramos as president in 1996. Elected on promises that he would revive the economy, Estrada headed a corrupt administration. Impeached in 2000 and brought to trial on charges of taking bribes from gambling syndicates, Estrada and his supporters tried to block the prosecutor's access to his financial records in order to delay or end his trial. This led to mass demonstrations that forced Estrada to resign in January 2001. His successor, Gloria Arroyo, promised to wipe out poverty and corruption and refused to grant Estrada amnesty for his alleged crimes. The Arroyo regime struggled to establish its political qualifications, revitalize the country, and deal with Islamic rebel groups, such as the Abu Sayyaf separatists. Just one of many Muslim separatist groups that have been fighting for independence for thirty years or more in Mindanao, the group has been accused of associations with the Al Qaeda network. As of 2002, the Philippine army was still fighting these rebels with assistance from the United States.

Bibliography

Gleeck, Lewis Jr. General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century. Quezon City, R.P.: Garcia. 1984.

Golay, Frank. Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898–1946. Madison, Wis.: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1997.

Hahn, Emily. The Islands: America's Imperial Adventure in the Philippines. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan. 1981.

Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. New York: Ballantine, 1990.

McFerson, Hazel M. ed. Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. 2002.

Roth, Russell. Muddy Glory: America's "Indian Wars" in the Philippines, 1898–1935. West Hanover, Conn.: Christopher, 1981.

Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974.

Welch, Richard E., Jr. Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1979.

The U.S. dominance of the university educational system in the Philippines in the early decades of the twentieth century meant that Filipino doctors looked to that country for its medical models. Several physicians studied in the United States and imbibed psychoanalytic theory from the American tradition.

One of the first was Virgilio Santiago, who completed his medical training at the University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines in 1949. This medical training led him to psychoanalytic training under Robert Waelder, a student of Freud's. He then went on to study at the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas. This was an unusual route to follow, since most psychiatrists were trained in the dominant organic school of psychiatry. In the 1950s psychoanalysis was strictly forbidden by the conservative Catholic clergy. Santiago was also discouraged by his colleagues from pursuing the field. Nonetheless, in a private practice he found a clientele among the expatriate population, and a small minority of Filipinos suffering from psychosis also consulted him. Santiago's general criticisms of the poor quality of Filipino health care suggest that the average Filipino was unsuited to psychoanalysis (Santiago, 1966).

Two other early pioneers were Baltazar Reyes and Rudolfo Varias. Reyes graduated from the University of the Philippines and then did postgraduate training at the Langley Porter Institute in California before returning to the Philippines to teach and research. Varias trained in classic psychoanalysis in New York. He returned to teach at the institute of public hygiene (now the College of Public Health). In the 1970s he returned to New York. His departure meant no further development of psychoanalytic psychotherapy at that time.

Not until the end of the 1960s, with the appearance of Lourdes Lapuz's A Study of Psychopathology (1969), was orthodox psychoanalytic theory again taken seriously. This groundbreaking book influenced a whole generation of psychiatrists, psychologists, and counselors, who remodeled the original psychoanalytic theory in which they had been instructed to suit the Filipino cultural mold. As in other Asian cultures, people's social and cultural expectations led them to view the doctor as an authority figure, and this required a more interactive role of the analyst. This book was followed by Children of Oedipus (Lapuz, 1973), which deals more fully with these issues. In her succeeding works she dealt with marital counseling and couple and family therapy (Lapuz, 1979).

In spite of these developments, however, the modern mental-health system remains poorly understood in the Philippines because of the low level of medical awareness of the population and the prevalence of alternatives to modern medicine, be they indigenous forms of herbal healing or even cult healing practices. These factors, coupled with a poor health-insurance system and a social need for gainful employment, have reduced the need for formal institutes of psychoanalysis and explain why the Philippines at the moment has no training analysts practicing psychoanalysis. Freud's work has not made a big impact in this predominately Catholic culture, where even today, teaching human sexuality from the point of view of psychology has not gained much ground in the academic world. Sex education consists largely of lectures on population control.

Bibliography

Estrada-Cristanto, T. (1997). Interview with Virgilio Santiago. November. Manila, Philippines. Unpublished.Lapuz, Lourdes. (1969). A study of psychopathology. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Lapuz, Lourdes. (1973). Children of Oedipus. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

——. (1979). Marriage counselling. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Santiago, Virgilio. (1966). Psychopathology of Sisa. ActaMedica Philippina, 2 (3), 140-145.

—GEOFFREY H. BLOWERS

This entry is a subtopic of Spanish Colonies.

The powerful nations of Europe undertook a global project of imperialism and colonization in the late fifteenth century. Spain and Portugal, followed by other European states, used religion as a motivating force for economic expansion. As a result of Europe's conquests and attempted conquests, the Americas and large segments of Asia were eventually subjugated and annexed as European possessions or outposts. Following Columbus's expeditions to America, Cortés's conquest of Mexico in 1519, and Magellan's "discovery" of the Philippines in 1521, a series of unsuccessful Spanish attempts to colonize the Philippine archipelago took place. It was not until 1565 that the first permanent Spanish settlement succeeded under Miguel López de Legazpi, a minor Spanish official in Mexico. It remained part of the Spanish empire until 1898.

On 13 February 1565, an expedition set out from New Spain (Mexico), reaching Gamay Bay off Samar Island, then proceeding to touch at Leyte, Camiguin, Bohol, and finally Cebu on 27 April. In May 1571 the group of settlers moved to Manila. Thereupon, Juan de Salcedo conducted an expedition of conquest around Laguna de Bay and down the Cagayan River. Martín de Goiti and one hundred soldiers penetrated the center of the island of Luzon. After 1571, Manila became the center of Spanish colonization. The original Spanish incentives to occupy the Philippines were control of the spice trade and control of Pacific trade routes. However, the Philippines were too far from the spice routes, and other European powers never acknowledged Spanish hegemony in the Pacific Ocean.

The Spanish home government set up a jurisdiction that placed the Philippines under the rule of the viceroy of Mexico. Like the Americas, the archipelago had a governor-general, an audiencia ('advisors and court'), and a cabildo ('town council') for the city of Manila. In the areas outside of Manila, alcaldías ('provinces') were organized, with an alcalde mayor ('provincial governor') as head.

What proved to be the major cultural force in the archipelago were the religious orders. Augustinians, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Franciscans were the frontline representatives of Western culture who indoctrinated and converted local peoples. They were followed by the secular clergy, who gradually took over the task of ensuring that the new converts to Christianity did not "relapse." Although the archipelago consists of almost seven thousand islands, not all were inhabited or came under Spanish rule. The southernmost parts of the archipelago were Muslim and remained so throughout Spanish occupation. As Christianity was extended throughout the islands, the Western value system it represented was incorporated into the native Malay society.

Local income from the tribute taxes imposed by the Spaniards was so low that it soon became clear that the maintenance of the Philippine archipelago as a colony in the Pacific was a financial drain on the Spanish Empire, and retaining the colony as the only Christian outpost in Asia became the new motivating force. The economy of the islands was in the hands of the "Manila Galleon," merchants who loaded a large ship with Asian luxury items each year and sold them in Acapulco, Mexico. On its return the Manila Galleon carried silver pesos.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a concentrated effort was made to develop agriculture and mining under the Bourbon dynasty. In the nineteenth century the external trade of the islands grew considerably, sparked by capital growth, large-scale imports of raw materials, and a rising population. English and American vessels unloaded wines, copper, nails, oil, and other manufactured goods, and in return carried away hemp, sugar, tobacco, and rice.

Spain's long colonial rule produced deep-rooted changes in Philippine society. Christianity, foreign commerce, and new political and economic relations, as well as new concepts of land use and land distribution, affected native society profoundly.

Bibliography

Cushner, Nicholas P. Spain in the Philippines: From Conquest to Revolution. Quezon City, Philippines, and Rutland, Vt., 1971.

Lyon, Eugene. "The Manila Galleon." National Geographic (January 1998).

Phelan, John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700. Madison, Wis., 1959.

Wickberg, Edgar. The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850–1898. Manila, Philippines, 2000.

—NICHOLAS P. CUSHNER

Republic in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, comprising over seven thousand islands. Its capital and largest city is Manila.

• The Spanish held control of the islands until 1898, when they were transferred to the United States after the Spanish-American War.
• Named for Philip II, king of Spain during the sixteenth century.
• Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, the islands were liberated by Allied troops under General Douglas MacArthur.
• Although Philippine independence had long been an important political issue, the country did not gain full independence until 1946.
• The country was under the virtual dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 until 1986, when he was forced into exile in the United States.
• It continues to be plagued by allegations of corruption in high places and by a Muslim insurgency.

The international dialing code for Philippines is:   63

It is 1:01 PM, January 6, in Philippines.

Philippine Peso

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Background:

The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a 10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese occupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power" movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2") demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace accord with one group and on-again/off-again peace talks with another.

Location:	Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam
Geographic coordinates:	13 00 N, 122 00 E
Map references:	Southeast Asia
Area:	total: 300,000 sq km land: 298,170 sq km water: 1,830 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly larger than Arizona
Land boundaries:	0 km
Coastline:	36,289 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: irregular polygon extending up to 100 nm from coastline as defined by 1898 treaty; since late 1970s has also claimed polygonal-shaped area in South China Sea up to 285 nm in breadth exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
Climate:	tropical marine; northeast monsoon (November to April); southwest monsoon (May to October)
Terrain:	mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Philippine Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Apo 2,954 m
Natural resources:	timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
Land use:	arable land: 19% permanent crops: 16.67% other: 64.33% (2005)
Irrigated land:	15,500 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:	479 cu km (1999)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):	total: 28.52 cu km/yr (17%/9%/74%) per capita: 343 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards:	astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis
Environment - current issues:	uncontrolled deforestation especially in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in major urban centers; coral reef degradation; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Geography - note:	the Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands; favorably located in relation to many of Southeast Asia's main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait

Population:	97,976,603 (July 2009 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 35.2% (male 17,606,352/female 16,911,376) 15-64 years: 60.6% (male 29,679,327/female 29,737,919) 65 years and over: 4.1% (male 1,744,248/female 2,297,381) (2009 est.)
Median age:	total: 22.5 years male: 22 years female: 23 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.957% (2009 est.)
Birth rate:	26.01 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate:	5.15 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate:	-1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Urbanization:	urban population: 65% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 3% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 20.56 deaths/1,000 live births male: 23.17 deaths/1,000 live births female: 17.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 71.09 years male: 68.17 years female: 74.15 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate:	3.27 children born/woman (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	less than 0.1% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	8,300 (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	fewer than 200 (2007 est.)
Major infectious diseases:	degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis water contact disease: leptospirosis (2009)
Nationality:	noun: Filipino(s) adjective: Philippine
Ethnic groups:	Tagalog 28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Bisaya/Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon Ilonggo 7.5%, Bikol 6%, Waray 3.4%, other 25.3% (2000 census)
Religions:	Roman Catholic 80.9%, Muslim 5%, Evangelical 2.8%, Iglesia ni Kristo 2.3%, Aglipayan 2%, other Christian 4.5%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.6%, none 0.1% (2000 census)
Languages:	Filipino (official; based on Tagalog) and English (official); eight major dialects - Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Bicol, Waray, Pampango, and Pangasinan
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.6% male: 92.5% female: 92.7% (2000 census)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):	total: 12 years male: 11 years female: 12 years (2006)
Education expenditures:	2.5% of GDP (2005)

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of the Philippines conventional short form: Philippines local long form: Republika ng Pilipinas local short form: Pilipinas
Government type:	republic
Capital:	name: Manila geographic coordinates: 14 35 N, 121 00 E time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:	80 provinces and 120 chartered cities provinces: Abra, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Aklan, Albay, Antique, Apayao, Aurora, Basilan, Bataan, Batanes, Batangas, Biliran, Benguet, Bohol, Bukidnon, Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Camiguin, Capiz, Catanduanes, Cavite, Cebu, Compostela, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Dinagat Islands, Eastern Samar, Guimaras, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo, Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, La Union, Leyte, Maguindanao, Marinduque, Masbate, Mindoro Occidental, Mindoro Oriental, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Mountain Province, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, North Cotabato, Northern Samar, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Romblon, Samar, Sarangani, Siquijor, Sorsogon, South Cotabato, Southern Leyte, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Tarlac, Tawi-Tawi, Zambales, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay chartered cities: Alaminos, Angeles, Antipolo, Bacolod, Bago, Baguio, Bais, Balanga, Batac, Batangas, Bayawan, Bislig, Butuan, Cabadbaran, Cabanatuan, Cadiz, Cagayan de Oro, Calamba, Calapan, Calbayog, Candon, Canlaon, Cauayan, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, Dagupan, Danao, Dapitan, Davao, Digos, Dipolog, Dumaguete, Escalante, Gapan, General Santos, Gingoog, Himamaylan, Iligan, Iloilo, Isabela, Iriga, Kabankalan, Kalookan, Kidapawan, Koronadal, La Carlota, Laoag, Lapu-Lapu, Las Pinas, Legazpi, Ligao, Lipa, Lucena, Maasin, Makati, Malabon, Malaybalay, Malolos, Mandaluyong, Mandaue, Manila, Marawi, Marikina, Masbate, Mati, Meycauayan, Muntinlupa, Munoz, Naga, Navotas, Olongapo, Ormoc, Oroquieta, Ozamis, Pagadian, Palayan, Panabo, Paranaque, Pasay, Pasig, Passi, Puerto Princesa, Quezon, Roxas, Sagay, Samal, San Carlos (in Negros Occidental), San Carlos (in Pangasinan), San Fernando (in La Union), San Fernando (in Pampanga), San Jose, San Jose del Monte, San Juan, San Pablo, Santa Rosa, Santiago, Silay, Sipalay, Sorsogon, Surigao, Tabaco, Tacloban, Tacurong, Tagaytay, Tagbilaran, Taguig, Tagum, Talisay (in Cebu), Talisay (in Negros Occidental), Tanauan, Tangub, Tanjay, Tarlac, Toledo, Tuguegarao, Trece Martires, Urdaneta, Valencia, Valenzuela, Victorias, Vigan, Zamboanga (2009)
Independence:	12 June 1898 (independence proclaimed from Spain); 4 July 1946 (from the US)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 12 June (1898); note - 12 June 1898 was date of declaration of independence from Spain; 4 July 1946 was date of independence from US
Constitution:	2 February 1987, effective 11 February 1987
Legal system:	based on Spanish and Anglo-American law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001); Vice President (Manuel "Noli" DE CASTRO (since 10 May 2004); note - president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with consent of Commission of Appointments elections: president and vice president elected on separate tickets by popular vote for a single six-year term; election last held on 10 May 2004 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO elected president; percent of vote - Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO 40%, Fernando POE 37%, three others 23%
Legislative branch:	bicameral Congress or Kongreso consists of the Senate or Senado (24 seats - one-half elected every three years; members elected at large by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Kapulungan Ng Nga Kinatawan (as a result of May 2007 election it has 240 seats including 218 members representing districts and 22 sectoral party-list members representing special minorities elected on the basis of 1 seat for every 2% of the total vote but limited to 3 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms; note - the Constitution prohibits the House of Representatives from having more than 250 members) elections: Senate - last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010); House of Representatives - elections last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lakas 4, LP 4, Nacionalista 3, NPC 2, PDP-Laban 2, PMP 2, Kampi 1, LDP 1, PRP 1, independents 3; note - there are 23 rather than 24 sitting senators because one senator was elected mayor of Manila; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lakas 92, Kampi 54, NPC 25, LP 21, Party-list 22, independents 3, others 26; there are 238 rather than 240 sitting representatives because two died in office
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court (15 justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until 70 years of age); Court of Appeals; Sandigan-bayan (special court for hearing corruption cases of government officials)
Political parties and leaders:	Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino or Kampi [Luis VILLAFUERTE]; Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino (Struggle of Filipino Democrats) or LDP [Edgardo ANGARA]; Lakas ng EDSA-Christian Muslim Democrats or Lakas-CMD [Prospero NOGRALES]; Liberal Party or LP [Manuel ROXAS]; Nacionalista Party or NP [Manuel VILLAR]; Nationalist People's Coalition or NPC [Frisco SAN JUAN]; PDP-Laban [Aquilino PIMENTEL]; People's Reform Party [Miriam Defensor SANTIAGO]; Puwersa ng Masang Pilipino (Force of the Philippine Masses) or PMP [Joseph ESTRADA]; United Opposition or UNO [Jejomar BINAY]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	ABONO [Robert ESTRELLA]; AKBAYAN [Anna Theresia BARAQUIEL]; An Waray [Florencio NOEL]; Anak Mindanao [Mujiv HATAMIN]; ANAKPAWIS [Rafael MARIANO]; ARC [Narciso SANTIAGO III]; Association of Philippine Electric Cooperatives (APEC) [Ernesto PABLO and Edgar VALDEZ]; A TEACHER [Mariano PIAMONTE]; Bayan Muna [Satur OCAMPO and Teodoro CASINO, Jr.]; Black and White Movement [Vicente ROMANO]; BUHAY [Rene VELARDE, Carissa COSCOLLUELLA, and William TIENG]; BUTIL [Leonila CHAVEZ]; CIBAC [Emmanuel Joel VILLANUEVA]; COOP-NATCO [Jose PING-AY]; GABRIELA [Liza MAZA and Luzviminda ILAGAN]; Kilosbayan [Jovito SALONGA]; YACAP [Carol LOPEZ]
International organization participation:	ADB, APEC, APT, ARF, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PIF (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNMIT, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Willy C. GAA chancery: 1600 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 467-9300 FAX: [1] (202) 467-9417 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), San Francisco, Tamuning (Guam)
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Kristie A. KENNEY embassy: 1201 Roxas Boulevard, Ermita 1000, Manila mailing address: PSC 500, FPO AP 96515-1000 telephone: [63] (2) 301-2000 FAX: [63] (2) 301-2399
Flag description:	two equal horizontal bands of blue (top; representing peace and justice) and red (representing courage); a white equilateral triangle based on the hoist side represents equality; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing one of the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star representing the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897; in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top

Economy - overview:	Economic growth has averaged 5% since President MACAPAGAL-ARROYO took office in 2001. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO averted a fiscal crisis by pushing for new revenue measures and, until recently, tightening expenditures. Declining fiscal deficits, tapering debt and debt service ratios, and increased spending on infrastructure and social services bolstered optimism over Philippine economic prospects. Although the general macroeconomic outlook improved significantly in recent years, the economy still faces several long term challenges. The Philippines must maintain the reform momentum in order to catch up with regional competitors, improve employment opportunities, and alleviate poverty. The Philippines will need still higher, sustained growth to make progress in alleviating poverty, given its high population growth and unequal distribution of income. The Philippine economy grew at its fastest pace in three decades in 2007 with real GDP growth exceeding 7%, but growth slowed to 4.5% in 2008 as a result of the world financial crisis. High government spending, a relatively small trade sector, a resilient service sector, and large remittances from the four- to five-million Filipinos who work abroad have helped cushion the economy from the current financial crisis.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$320.6 billion (2008 est.) $306.5 billion (2007) $285.9 billion (2006) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate):	$168.6 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	4.6% (2008 est.) 7.2% (2007 est.) 5.4% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):	$3,300 (2008 est.) $3,300 (2007 est.) $3,100 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 14.7% industry: 31.6% services: 53.7% (2008 est.)
Labor force:	36.81 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 35% industry: 15% services: 50% (2008 est.)
Unemployment rate:	7.4% (2008 est.)
Population below poverty line:	30% (2003 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: 2.4% highest 10%: 31.2% (2006)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:	45.8 (2006)
Investment (gross fixed):	16.8% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $26.75 billion expenditures: $28.2 billion (2008 est.)
Fiscal year:	calendar year
Public debt:	56.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	9.3% (2008 est.)
Central bank discount rate:	6% (31 December 2008)
Commercial bank prime lending rate:	8.69% (31 December 2007)
Stock of money:	$22.53 billion (31 December 2008)
Stock of quasi money:	$65.85 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit:	$65.66 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares:	$85.6 billion (31 December 2008)
Agriculture - products:	sugarcane, coconuts, rice, corn, bananas, cassavas, pineapples, mangoes; pork, eggs, beef; fish
Industries:	electronics assembly, garments, footwear, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, wood products, food processing, petroleum refining, fishing
Industrial production growth rate:	5% (2008 est.)
Electricity - production:	56.51 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - consumption:	47.04 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - exports:	0 kWh (2007)
Electricity - imports:	0 kWh (2007)
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 55.6% hydro: 17.5% nuclear: 0% other: 26.9% (2001)
Oil - production:	23,930 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - consumption:	340,100 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports:	41,160 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - imports:	355,800 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - proved reserves:	138.5 million bbl (1 January 2008 est.)
Natural gas - production:	2.2 billion cu m (2006 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:	2.2 billion cu m (2006 est.)
Natural gas - exports:	0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - imports:	0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:	98.54 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
Current account balance:	$2.687 billion (2008 est.)
Exports:	$49 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports - commodities:	semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, fruits
Exports - partners:	US 17%, Japan 14.5%, Hong Kong 11.5%, China 11.4%, Netherlands 8.2%, Singapore 6.2%, Malaysia 5%, Germany 4.3% (2007)
Imports:	$58 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports - commodities:	electronic products, mineral fuels, machinery and transport equipment, iron and steel, textile fabrics, grains, chemicals, plastic
Imports - partners:	US 14.1%, Japan 12.3%, Singapore 11.2%, Taiwan 7.3%, China 7.2%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, South Korea 5.9%, Malaysia 4.1%, Thailand 4.1% (2007)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$36.15 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Debt - external:	$53.48 billion (31 September 2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:	$20.78 billion (2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:	$5.564 billion (2008 est.)
Currency (code):	Philippine peso (PHP)
Currency code:	PHP
Exchange rates:	Philippine pesos (PHP) per US dollar - 44.439 (2008 est.), 46.148 (2007), 51.246 (2006), 55.086 (2005), 56.04 (2004)

Telephones - main lines in use:	3.633 million (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	51.795 million (2007)
Telephone system:	general assessment: good international radiotelephone and submarine cable services; domestic and interisland service adequate domestic: domestic satellite system with 11 earth stations; cellular communications now dominate the industry; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone density about 60 telephones per 100 persons international: country code - 63; a series of submarine cables together provide connectivity to Asia, US, the Middle East, and Europe; multiple international gateways (2007)
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 381, FM 628, shortwave 4 (2007)
Radios:	11.5 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:	250 (plus 1,501 CATV networks) (2007)
Televisions:	3.7 million (1997)
Internet country code:	.ph
Internet hosts:	283,579 (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	33 (2000)
Internet users:	5.3 million (2007)

Airports:	254 (2008)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 85 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 7 1,524 to 2,437 m: 28 914 to 1,523 m: 36 under 914 m: 10 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 169 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 66 under 914 m: 99 (2008)
Heliports:	2 (2007)
Pipelines:	oil 107 km; refined products 112 km (2008)
Railways:	total: 897 km narrow gauge: 897 km 1.067-m gauge (492 km are in operation) (2006)
Roadways:	total: 200,037 km paved: 19,804 km unpaved: 180,233 km (2003)
Waterways:	3,219 km (limited to vessels with draft less than 1.5 m) (2008)
Merchant marine:	total: 391 by type: bulk carrier 75, cargo 125, carrier 16, chemical tanker 17, container 6, liquefied gas 5, passenger 6, passenger/cargo 68, petroleum tanker 36, refrigerated cargo 15, roll on/roll off 11, vehicle carrier 11 foreign-owned: 161 (Bermuda 34, China 4, Greece 4, Hong Kong 1, Japan 81, Malaysia 1, Netherlands 23, Norway 10, Singapore 1, Taiwan 1, UAE 1) registered in other countries: 11 (Comoros 1, Cyprus 1, Hong Kong 1, Indonesia 1, Panama 7) (2008)
Ports and terminals:	Cagayan de Oro, Cebu, Davao, Liman, Manila, Nasipit Harbor
Transportation - note:	the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial and offshore waters in the South China Sea as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships; numerous commercial vessels have been attacked and hijacked both at anchor and while underway; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargo diverted to ports in East Asia; crews have been murdered or cast adrift

Military branches:	Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP): Army, Navy (includes Marine Corps and Coast Guard), Air Force (2009)
Military service age and obligation:	18-25 years of age (officers 21-29) for compulsory and voluntary military service; applicants must be single male or female Philippine citizens (2007)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 16-49: 23,547,252 females age 16-49: 23,177,487 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 16-49: 19,169,298 females age 16-49: 20,636,853 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:	male: 1,023,431 female: 986,434 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures:	0.9% of GDP (2005 est.)

Disputes - international:	Philippines claims sovereignty over certain of the Spratly Islands, known locally as the Kalayaan (Freedom) Islands, also claimed by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam; the 2002 "Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea," has eased tensions in the Spratly Islands but falls short of a legally binding "code of conduct" desired by several of the disputants; in March 2005, the national oil companies of China, the Philippines, and Vietnam signed a joint accord to conduct marine seismic activities in the Spratly Islands; Philippines retains a dormant claim to Malaysia's Sabah State in northern Borneo based on the Sultanate of Sulu's granting the Philippines Government power of attorney to pursue a sovereignty claim on his behalf; maritime delimitation negotiations continue with Palau
Refugees and internally displaced persons:	IDPs: 300,000 (fighting between government troops and MILF and Abu Sayyaf groups) (2007)
Illicit drugs:	domestic methamphetamine production has been a growing problem in recent years despite government crackdowns; major consumer of amphetamines; longstanding marijuana producer mainly in rural areas where Manila's control is limited

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Coconut Buying and Opening To select a fresh coconut, shake it to feel the sloshing of liquid inside. A cracked or old coconut will be empty and dry. Opening the coconut: Locate the brown eye-like spots at one end and pierce with a sharp point. Drain off the liquid. Preheat oven to 400°F. Place the coconut in the oven on a cookie sheet and bake for 15 minutes. Remove the coconut and wrap in a clean kitchen towel. Carefully crack it open with a hammer. The coconut meat should be broken away carefully from the shell. If a portion is not broken easily away from the shell, return the coconut to the oven for a few minutes more. Making Shredded Coconut Once all of the meat is out of the shell, you can grate the meat with a small hand grater, shred the meat in a food processor, or with a sharp knife. One coconut makes about 4 cups of shredded coconut.

Recipes

Leche Flan (Caramel Custard)
Coconut Milk
Maja Blanco (Coconut Cake)
Adobong Hiponsa Gata (Shrimp Adobo)
Tsokolate (Hot Chocolate)
Sinangag (Garlic Rice)
Pansit Mami (Noodles In Broth)
Polvoron (Powdered Milk Candy)

Geographic Setting and Environment

The Republic of the Philippines consists of a group of 7,107 islands situated southeast of mainland Asia and separated from it by the South China Sea. The two largest islands are Luzon (40,814 square miles/105,708 square kilometers), and Mindanao (36,906 square miles/95,586 square kilometers). Comparatively, the area occupied by the Philippines is slightly larger than the state of Arizona. The land is varied, with volcanic mountain masses forming the cores of most of the larger islands. A number of volcanoes are active, and the islands have been subject to destructive earthquakes. Lowlands are generally narrow coastal strips except for larger plains in Luzon and Mindanao. Forests cover almost one-half of the land area and are typically tropical, with vines and other climbing plants.

Pollution from industrial sources and mining operations is a significant environmental problem in the Philippines. Almost forty of the country's rivers contain high levels of toxic contaminants. About 23 percent of the nation's rural dwellers do not have pure water, while 93 percent of the city dwellers do not have pure water. Also threatened are the coastal mangrove swamps, which serve as important fish breeding grounds, and offshore corals, about 50 percent of which are rated dead or dying as a result of pollution and dynamiting by fishermen. The nation is also vulnerable to typhoons, earthquakes, floods, and volcanoes.

History and Food

The Philippines' location between the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean has made the islands a crossing point for migrating people all over the world. As a result, the Philippines is made up of a range of different people and ethnic groups. While there are many different dialects and languages, Tagalog is the national language. The people of the Philippines are called Filipino. Filipino cuisine reflects the blending of these wide and varied cultures.

Malays, from Malaysia, were among the first inhabitants of the Philippines over 20,000 years ago. They brought with them the knowledge of preparing hot chilies and the use of ginataan, or coconut milk, in sauces to balance the spiciness.

The Chinese established colonies in the Philippines between 1200 and 1300. They introduced pansit, or Chinese noodle dishes, and bean curds. Later came egg rolls, and soy sauce. Like the Chinese, the Filipinos consume a wide array of dipping sauces to accompany their dishes.

Spain occupied the Philippines for almost 400 years, beginning in 1521. This colonization had a major impact on Filipino cuisine. A majority of the dishes prepared in modern Philippines can be traced back to Spain. In fact, everyday Filipino dishes resemble Spanish cooking more than native meals. The Spaniards introduced a Mediterranean style of eating and preparing food. Techniques such as braising and sautéing, and meals cooked in olive oil, are examples. Spain also introduced cooking with seasonings, such as garlic, onions, tomatoes, sweet peppers, and vinegar.

The United States took control of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War in 1898, staying through World War II (1939–1945) until 1946. The U. S. military introduced goods shipped in from their country such as mayonnaise, hot dogs, hamburgers, and apple pies. Canned evaporated and condensed milk often replace the traditional buffalo milk used in desserts, such as flan (caramel custard). Nowhere else in Asian cuisine can cheese and canned tomato sauce be found in recipes. All of these foods are still favorites of the Filipinos and can be found almost anywhere in the country.

See Leche Flan (Caramel Custard) recipe.

Foods of the Filipinos

Like other Southeast Asian cuisines, the Filipinos eat a lot of vegetables and rice. Similarly, they also eat many types of seafood, saving meat for more special occasions (often in the form of lechon, or whole roasted pig). The waters surrounding the Philippines islands provide over 2,000 species of fish. In addition, Filipinos have been farming fish in palaisdaan, or fishponds, using aquaculture (raising fish and shellfish in controlled conditions) for over 1,000 years. Patis, a clear, amber-colored fish sauce, is used in Filipino dishes as much as soy sauce is used in China.

For over 2,000 years, rice has been grown in the Philippines and is eaten almost daily. As of the twenty-first century, over twenty varieties of rice are cultivated, which are made into thousands of different cakes, noodles, and pancakes. Rice noodles are common in fast-food restaurants and stands, served heaping with a choice of different meats and vegetables. Noodles symbolize prosperity, long life, and good luck. Filipinos believe the longer the noodles, the better, so noodles are generally not broken or cut when a dish is being prepared.

Since the weather in the Philippines is tropical, many types of fruit are grown. Pineapples, strawberries, cantaloupe, melon, kiwi, bananas, guapple (a cross between a guava and an apple) and coconut are just a few examples. Coconuts are plentiful and are used in and on everything. The coconut meat inside can be eaten, and the ginataang (milk from the meat) can be used in refreshing drinks or for sauces to cook fruits and vegetables in, such as adobong hipon sa gata (shrimp adobo in coconut milk). It can also be grated or baked into desserts and sweets, such as maja blanca (coconut cake).

See Coconut Milk recipe.

See Maja Blanco (Coconut Cake) recipe.

See Adobong Hiponsa Gata (Shrimp Adobo in Coconut Milk) recipe.

Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations

Christian holidays are the most widely celebrated holidays in the Philippines. This is because Spain introduced the Catholic religion centuries ago when it occupied the Philippines. In the twenty-first century, about 90 percent of Filipinos are Roman Catholic Christians. The Philippines is the only Asian country that is primarily Christian. Filipinos claim to have one of the world's longest Christmas celebrations. Their celebration begins December 16 and lasts for three weeks. On Pasko Ng Bata, Christmas Day, families may gather to eat lumpia (spring rolls), and drink tsokolate (a native chocolate drink) and salabat (ginger tea).

See Tsokolate (Hot Chocolate) recipe.

Filipino families meet to share a Christmas meal, but they save their Christmas feast for Epiphany. The holiday season ends with the Feast of the Epiphany, which is on the first Sunday in January. This is when families gather to eat pork lechon, which is a whole pig roasted outside over a spitfire of burning coals. Served with the pork are a garlic rice called sinangag and other rice dishes, such as bibingka (rice cake with salted eggs and fresh coconut meat) and suman (steamed rice wrapped in banana leaves). Vegetable dishes and assorted fruits, such as pineapples, bananas, persimmons (very tart fruit that looks similar to a tomato), and papayas, are eaten as well. Desserts, cookies, and cakes top off the huge feast, which can go on for several hours and then is followed by a long afternoon nap.

See Sinangag (Garlic Rice) recipe.

Mealtime Customs

Filipino dishes are based more on distinctive tastes and textures than different courses. Instead of serving courses separately, they are all brought to the table at one time so the diners can enjoy all flavors and dishes together. Dining at a Filipino table is similar to eating at a buffet. Even the dessert is part of the buffet-style meal. The dessert provides a sweet balance to the salty and sour tastes that are part of a meal.

Unlike in much of the Western world, burping is not considered rude in the Philippines where it means you are full and enjoyed the meal. Sometimes a burp is followed with the expression, Ay, salamat, which means, "Ahh, thank you."

Anyone who visits a Filipino home, no matter what time of day, is offered food. If the guest interrupts a meal, which is common because most Filipinos eat five or more meals a day, they are invited to join the diners. Eating is so constant, in fact, that many Filipinos use "Kumain ka na?" ("Have you eaten yet?") as a general greeting to each other.

Before outside influences, Filipinos used their hands to eat. The traditional way of eating was to scoop up food from flat dishes with fingers of the right hand. Some upscale native restaurants in Manila, the country's capital, serve food this way. With Western influences and the introduction of knives, forks and spoons, Filipinos have adapted their ways. The fork and spoon are the two main utensils of choice. The fork is held with the left hand and the spoon in the right. The fork is used to spear and hold the piece of food while the spoon is used to cut or tear off small pieces.

Almusal (breakfast) is the first meal of the day, and usually consists of leftovers from the previous evening's dinner, like garlic fried rice and cured meat. Ginger tea is usually drunk. Ensaimada (fluffy, sugared, coiled buns), smoked fish, salted duck eggs, fried eggs, Chinese ham, Spanish sausages, and fresh mangos are just some of the foods that might be eaten.

For lunch, mongo (a stew of munggo—mung beans—and shrimp with olive oil and lime juice), caldereta (goat and potato stew), and ensaladang balasens, an eggplant salad, may be eaten. All of these dishes are typically accompanied by white rice. Most school students carry lunchboxes to school. In it, they would have a thermos with a sugary fruit drink, a large container of plain white rice, a small container with fried fish or chicken, and a small container of tomato sauce on the side. They would typically not take any fruit or vegetables. A student's lunch box also might contain a peanut butter sandwich for an afternoon snack.

For dinner, Filipinos will often go to a simple turo-turo restaurant. This literally means "point point," which is how they select their food. They may choose menudo (hearty pork and chickpea stew), or pansit (noodle) dishes, such as pansit mami (noodles in broth). If they decide to go a fancier restaurant, they might enjoy patang bawang, which are deep-fried pork knuckles with garlic and chilies, and maybe a wedge of American-style lemon meringue pie for dessert.

See Pansit Mami (Noodles in Broth) recipe.

See Polvoron (Powdered Milk Candy) recipe.

Politics, Economics, and Nutrition

About 22 percent of the population of the Philippines are classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 30 percent are underweight, and nearly one-third are stunted (short for their age). Government-financed child health malnutrition programs are already well established in the Philippines; however, these programs lack significant funding and malnutrition continues to be a primary concern. Indigenous (native) foods such as mung beans and powdered shrimp are available for infants and children, but protein, iron, iodine, and Vitamin A remain deficient in their diets.

An increase in community involvement since the 1980s has helped to keep the population aware of the problems with malnourished children. Such awareness has led to a gradual improvement in health care for all Filipinos. As of 1996, a vast majority (91 percent) of those living in urban areas also had access to clean and safe water, as did 81 percent of those living in rural areas.

Further Study

Books

Fertig, Theresa Kryst. Christmas in the Philippines. Chicago: World Book, 1990.

Hyman, Gwenda L. Cuisines of Southeast Asia. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993.

Jaffrey, Madhur. Far Eastern Cookery. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.

Osborne, Christine. Southeast Asian Food and Drink. New York: Bookwright, 1989.

Web Sites

Filipino Web. [Online] Available http://www.filipinoweb.com/art_cuisine.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

Global Gourmet. [Online] Available http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/philippines/phileat.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

Tribo. [Online] Available http://www.tribo.org/filipinofood/food2.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

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Bayang magiliw
Perlas ng Silanganan
Alab ng puso
Sa dibdib mo'y buhay.

Lupang hinirang,
Duyan ka ng magiting,
Sa manlulupig
Di ka pasisiil.

Sa dagat at bundok
Sa simoy at sa langit mong bughaw;
May dilag and tula
At awit sa paglayang minamahal.

Ang kislap ng watawat mo'y
Tagumpay na nagniningning,
Ang bituin at araw niya
Kailan pa ma'y di magdidilim.

Lupa ng araw, ng luwalhati't pagsinta,
Buhay at langit sa piling mo;
Aming ligaya na pag may mang-aapi
Ang mamatay ng dahil sa iyo.

English Version

Land of the morning
Child of the sun returning
With fervor burning
Thee do our souls adore.

Land dear and holy,
Cradle of noble heroes,
Ne'er shall invaders
Trample thy sacred shores.

Ever within thy skies and through thy clouds
And o'er thy hills and seas;
Do we behold thy radiance, feel the throb
Of glorious liberty.

Thy banner dear to all hearts
Its sun and stars alright,
Oh, never shall its shining fields
Be dimmed by tyrants might.

Beautiful land of love, oh land of light,
In thine embrace 'tis rapture to lie;
But it is glory ever when thou art wronged
For us thy sons to suffer and die.

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