Philippines

Dictionary: Phil·ip·pines (fĭl'ə-pēnz', fĭl'ə-pēnz')

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Philippines

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A country of eastern Asia consisting of the Philippine Islands, an archipelago in the western Pacific Ocean southeast of China. Inhabited by Malays and various indigenous groups, the islands were first sighted by Magellan's expedition in 1521 and were colonized by the Spanish after 1565. They came under U.S. control in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. A commonwealth was created in 1935 and full independence achieved in 1946. The islands were occupied by Japan during much of World War II. Political turmoil led to the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos after 1965 and his exile in 1986 following the election of Corazón Aquino. Manila is the capital and the largest city. Population: 91,100,000.

Philippine Phil'ip·pine' adj.

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5min Related Video: Philippines

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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Philippines

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Island country, western Pacific Ocean, on an archipelago off the southeast coast of Asia. Area: 122,121 sq mi (316,294 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 84,191,000. Capital: Manila; Quezon City is the designated centre of national government. Filipinos are predominantly of Malay descent, frequently with Chinese and sometimes American or Spanish ancestry. Languages: Pilipino and English (both official); the other main groups are Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, and Bicol. Religions: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant, other Christians); also Islam. Currency: Philippine peso. The Philippines consist of about 7,100 islands and islets. The two principal islands are Luzon in the north and Mindanao in the south. The Visayan group is in the central Philippines, Mindoro is directly south of Luzon, and Palawan is isolated in the west. The topography is varied; inactive volcanoes and mountain ranges are the main features of most of the larger islands. The country has a predominantly market economy based largely on agriculture, light industries, and services. The Philippines is a republic with two legislative houses; its chief of state and head of government is the president. First visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the islands were colonized by the Spanish, who retained control until the Philippines were ceded to the U.S. in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in 1935 to prepare the country for political and economic independence, which was delayed by World War II and the invasion of Japanese troops. The islands were liberated by U.S. forces in 1944 – 45, and the Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed in 1946, with a government patterned on that of the U.S. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos was elected president. He declared martial law in 1972, which lasted until 1981. After 20 years of dictatorial rule, Marcos was driven from power in 1986. Corazon Aquino became president and instituted a period of democratic rule that continued with the elections of subsequent presidents. The government has tried to come to terms with Muslim independence fighters in the southern islands by establishing the Muslim Mindanao autonomous region in southwestern Mindanao and nearby islands.

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US History Encyclopedia: Philippines

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Discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the Philippine Islands were occupied by Spain from 1565 to 1898. This occupation was continuous, other than for a brief partial occupation by Great Britain from 1762 to 1764. As a result of the Spanish-American War, possession of the islands was assumed by the United States in 1898.

The Colonial Years

Spanish occupation introduced Christianity and western ideas in general to the Filipino people, while restricting the influence of Islam, primarily in Mindanao and nearby regions. After the United States assumed control of the islands, there was a greater focus on educational, commercial, and agricultural development of the Philippines, along with the introduction of democratic principles. Agitation for independence, which began under Spanish rule, continued in the Philippines under American control.

American interest in the Philippines was largely the result of a desire to expand the nation's economic influence into the Pacific and Asia. When the closing of the frontier seemed imminent by the 1890s, many Americans looked to Asia and the Pacific as golden opportunities to expand American trade and avoid future economic depressions like those of the past twenty-five years. American ambitions for trade, investment opportunities, and territory in East Asia, particularly China, were threatened by competition among the other great powers—England, France, Russia, Germany, and Japan. The Philippines were attractive because they could provide a military and commercial base from which the United States could protect its interests in China. As American relations with Spain deteriorated over the crisis in Cuba, the McKinley Administration saw an opportunity to deal with the situations in Asia and the Caribbean simultaneously.

On 1 May 1898, following the outbreak of war with Spain, Commodore George Dewey destroyed the aging Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. An American expeditionary force arrived in Manila seven months later, and Spain formally surrendered the city. After an armistice in August 1898, peace negotiations in Paris resulted in a treaty in December 1898 that ceded the Philippines to the United States in return for $20 million.

The acquisition of the Philippines gave rise to a protracted and bitter debate. Expansion into the Caribbean fit neatly into American perceptions of being the preeminent power in the Western hemisphere, but assuming control of a large, heavily populated territory thousands of miles away was a different and disquieting challenge. McKinley publicly claimed he had been opposed to acquiring the islands, but a night of reflection and prayer supposedly led him to conclude there was no alternative but to keep them. McKinley understood the Philippines would give the United States an Asian presence and make it easier to guard American interests there. Even so, McKinley was reluctant to assume responsibility for governing the islands, since there was a strong Filipino revolutionary army that had been fighting the Spanish and planned to govern the country. The president authorized Philippine acquisition, however, because he was concerned that another great power might seize the islands; because of the need to protect American commercial interests in Asia; and because he was convinced that the Filipinos could not govern themselves. While imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt applauded the decision and justified the move on the grounds that the United States had an obligation to teach the Filipinos self-government, others justified the action on the basis that the islands would be the American equivalent of Hong Kong, allowing the country to exploit trading opportunities throughout Asia and the East Indies. Many Republicans also recognized the political benefits of expansion, since it was a victorious war fought under a Republican administration.

But there was fierce opposition to acquisition of the Philippines. While the Senate debated ratification of the treaty, a strong anti-imperialist movement began to develop, which included some of the nation's most prominent citizens, including Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain. One anti-imperialist argument centered on the morality of imperialism, suggesting that it was a violation of an American commitment to human freedom. Others opposed it on racial grounds, fearing the admission of "inferior" Asian races into America. Some voiced concerns about cheap labor and cheap sugar flooding the domestic market, and the resources the country would have to expend to defend the new territories. Nevertheless, the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris on 6 February 1899, and the reelection of McKinley in 1900 seemed to indicate that the nation as a whole favored imperialism and the acquisition of the Philippines.

The country soon found itself embroiled in a much more difficult conflict than the one recently concluded with Spain. Filipino insurgents had been in rebellion against Spain before the Spanish-American War, and when the United States supplanted Spain, the revolutionaries directed their resistance against the new rulers. Generally ignored today, the Philippine War (1899–1901) was one of the bloodiest in American history. Some 200,000 American soldiers took part, and with 4,300 deaths, the United States suffered nearly ten times the fatalities of the Spanish-American War. The number of Filipinos who were killed remains uncertain but estimates range upward of fifty thousand. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, the rebels harassed the American occupation forces for more than three years. The guerrilla tactics used by the Filipinos prompted an increase in brutality on the part of American soldiers, who came to view the enemy as subhuman and who justified increasingly vicious and savage tactics to suppress the insurrection. Although the war continued into 1902, the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 signaled the turning point. Aguinaldo encouraged his supporters to stop fighting and proclaimed his allegiance to the United States, causing the rebellion to begin losing momentum. Although some fighting continued over the next four or five years, the United States had secured the islands.

At first, the military assumed responsibility for governing the Philippines. Then, during the summer of 1901, administrative authority was transferred to William Howard Taft, the first civilian governor of the territory. Taft promptly announced the intention of the United States to prepare the Filipinos for independence, and he permitted a good deal of local autonomy during his term of service. Taft established the Philippines Commission to serve as a legislative body, and a program of education was begun as well. American soldiers served as teachers until trained teachers could arrive from the United States.

American rule brought the construction of roadways, sanitary facilities and schools. Commerce, trade, and agriculture were given additional attention, and, in August 1907, the United States created the Philippine Assembly. Filipinos were given a majority of seats on the Philippine Commission under President Woodrow Wilson and gained greater autonomy during the administration of Francis Burton Harrison, the governor general from 1913 to 1921. The Jones Act of 1916 permitted the establishment of an elective senate and house of representatives to replace the Philippine Commission and Assembly. In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act mandated a ten-year transition to full independence for the Philippines.

As president, Theodore Roosevelt had referred to the Philippines as the Achilles heel of America in Asia and the Pacific, recognizing that the islands could be a tempting prize for another power such as Japan. With the Lansing-Ishii Agreement of 1917, the Wilson administration secured Japanese assurances that they had no ambitions regarding those islands. The Tydings-McDuffie Act, which promised the Philippines independence in ten years, can be further construed as an admission of American vulnerability there.

As population and economic pressures began to squeeze Japan in the late 1920s and early 1930s, that nation embarked on a program of expansion that led to war with China in 1937. That war had reached an impasse by 1941, leading the Japanese to decide on a southern strategy to secure the resources and markets of Southeast Asia and the East Indies. The United States had thus far given China limited support against Japan, but when Japan seized French Indochina in July 1941, the Roosevelt Administration placed a trade embargo on the Japanese. For the Japanese, this meant restoring good relations with the United States or proceeding with plans to secure the resources to the south. American efforts to get Japan out of China were unsuccessful, and the United States was unwilling to accept anything less. From The Japanese perspective, it seemed that the only option was to consider war with the United States. The location of the Philippine Islands further strengthened the possibility of war from Japan's point of view. The Philippines would make it easy for the United States to interdict shipments of vital raw materials from the East Indies. Therefore, to assure those materials would arrive safely in Japan, the Philippines would have to be taken as well, making war with the United States all the more unavoidable.

Ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese warplanes struck American air bases in Manila, destroying the small air force of General Douglas MacArthur while it was still on the ground. Perhaps more from ego than sensible military judgment, MacArthur fought the Japanese invaders with an inadequate army, suffering the loss of most of his forces. American and Filipino forces on Corregidor Island held out until 6 May 1942; the captured survivors were led on the infamous "death march" to prison camps. MacArthur, meanwhile, had escaped to Australia after promising to return to liberate the Philippines. Japan set up a puppet government in October 1943, with Jose Laurel as president.

In October 1944, MacArthur did return to the Philippines, along with 200,000 American troops. A combination of bad weather and fanatical Japanese defenders slowed the progress of the invasion, although the American navy decisively defeated the Japanese navy at Leyte Gulf. In February 1945, MacArthur fought a terribly destructive battle for Manila that cost the lives of more than a hundred thousand Filipino civilians. The Philippines were finally liberated on 5 July 1945.

Independence and the Struggle for Autonomy

One year later, 4 July 1946, the United States formally granted the Philippine Islands their independence, with Manuel Roxas as the new nation's first president. This was the first time an imperial power had ever voluntarily relinquished its possession of a colony. Independence, however, did not mean an end to Philippine dependence on the United States, nor was the U.S. willing to cut its ties completely. Concerned about the ability of the Philippines to recover from the ravages of the war, and with the growing exigencies of the Cold War, the United States soon incorporated the islands into its expanding military and economic fold. On 17 March 1947, the United States concluded an agreement with the Philippines that gave the United States leases on military bases there for ninety-nine years. The United States also monitored the Filipino government, often urging reforms that would end corruption and mismanagement. The Philippines would remain an important location for American air force and naval bases until the early 1990s. American loans, foreign aid, and trade agreements helped support the Philippine economy. A security pact between the United States and the Philippines was signed on 30 August 1951.

The war in Vietnam and continued American presence in the Philippines led to anti-American protests and riots in Manila and elsewhere in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These contributed to the autocracy of Ferdinand Marcos, who, in his second term as president, declared martial law and established a dictatorship in 1972. Although American investments and economic interests in the islands had fallen behind those of the Japanese and Taiwanese, the importance of the American military bases there led the Nixon and Ford administrations to keep silent about the end of democracy in the Philippines.

Increasing criticism of the government in the mid-1970s led to greater repression by Marcos; the policy of the United States was to turn a blind eye in that direction. Unwilling to risk talks about the military bases, the administration of Jimmy Carter carefully avoided criticizing the human rights record of Marcos, despite killings by the Philippine military and the imprisonment of thousands. The Carter administration reached a new accord regarding American military bases with the Marcos regime in 1979, and American economic support continued as well.

Growing unrest in the Philippines created a problem for the Reagan administration. Despite Marcos's repressive regime, Reagan liked the Philippine leader personally, having met him first in 1969, and continued to support him because of the Cold War. But the 1983 assassination of Benigno Aquino, Marcos's chief political opponent, made it clear that American strategic and economic interests were in jeopardy. A significant American financial commitment remained in place, while strategic interests dictated keeping Clark Air Field and the Subic Bay Naval Station, both of which were under leases granted by Marcos and due to expire in 1991. Marcos was pressured to implement badly needed reforms, but the Filipino leader continued his repressive ways. This led to more protests, the revival of a communist insurgency by a Maoist group called the Nationalist People's Army, and renewed attacks by Muslim guerillas.

Marcos tried to win back American support by staging elections in February 1986, which he intended to control. The opposition candidate was Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her calls for reform drew widespread support. Relying on massive election fraud, Marcos claimed victory, which was at first upheld by the Reagan White House. But the fraudulent nature of the election was so obvious that the administration had to back off from its support of Marcos when it became evident that any attempt by Marcos to stay in power would result in civil war. Reagan began to urge Marcos to step aside. Marcos finally gave in to American pressure and fled to Hawaii on an American Air Force transport. Corazon Aquino became president of the Philippines.

Although she reestablished democratic institutions, Aquino could not solve the economic problems of her country. Nor could she win the support of the military and the Filipino elite, halt the rampant corruption, or stem the communist insurgency that had now spread to nearly every province. She did implement some political and economic reforms, survived more than a half dozen coup attempts, and supported the 1992 election of her successor, General Fidel Ramos, one of the early defectors from Marcos. Ramos attempted to revitalize the economy, eliminate corruption, and attract foreign investors.

American strategic influence in the Philippines began to diminish in the 1990s. American financial aid stopped almost completely, partly because of domestic economic woes in the first part of the decade. Clark Air Force Base was abandoned after it was destroyed by a volcanic eruption, and, when no agreement on acceptable financial compensation could be reached, the Philippine Senate refused to renew the lease on the naval base at Subic Bay. These actions gave the country greater autonomy, while reflecting its lessened importance in American foreign policy.

A twenty-four-year insurrection led by the Moro National Liberation Front came to an end in 1996, with the signing of a peace accord that would grant the movement greater independence in many of that island's provinces. However, a splinter group, the militant Moro Islamic Liberation Front, rejected the agreement and continued to resist the government.

Joseph Estrada, a popular, though politically inexperienced motion picture actor, replaced Ramos as president in 1996. Elected on promises that he would revive the economy, Estrada headed a corrupt administration. Impeached in 2000 and brought to trial on charges of taking bribes from gambling syndicates, Estrada and his supporters tried to block the prosecutor's access to his financial records in order to delay or end his trial. This led to mass demonstrations that forced Estrada to resign in January 2001. His successor, Gloria Arroyo, promised to wipe out poverty and corruption and refused to grant Estrada amnesty for his alleged crimes. The Arroyo regime struggled to establish its political qualifications, revitalize the country, and deal with Islamic rebel groups, such as the Abu Sayyaf separatists. Just one of many Muslim separatist groups that have been fighting for independence for thirty years or more in Mindanao, the group has been accused of associations with the Al Qaeda network. As of 2002, the Philippine army was still fighting these rebels with assistance from the United States.

Bibliography

Gleeck, Lewis Jr. General History of the Philippines: The American Half-Century. Quezon City, R.P.: Garcia. 1984.

Golay, Frank. Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898–1946. Madison, Wis.: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1997.

Hahn, Emily. The Islands: America's Imperial Adventure in the Philippines. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan. 1981.

Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. New York: Ballantine, 1990.

McFerson, Hazel M. ed. Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. 2002.

Roth, Russell. Muddy Glory: America's "Indian Wars" in the Philippines, 1898–1935. West Hanover, Conn.: Christopher, 1981.

Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899–1921. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974.

Welch, Richard E., Jr. Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1979.

Columbia Encyclopedia: The Philippines

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Philippines, The (fĭl'əpēnz'), officially Republic of the Philippines, republic (2005 est. pop. 87,857,000), 115,830 sq mi (300,000 sq km), SW Pacific, in the Malay Archipelago off the SE Asia mainland. It comprises over 7,000 islands and rocks, of which only c.400 are permanently inhabited. The 11 largest islands-Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, and Masbate-contain about 95% of the total land area. The northernmost point of land, the islet of Y'Ami in the Batan Islands, is separated from Taiwan by the Bashi Channel (c.50 mi/80 km wide). Manila, on Luzon, is the capital, the largest city, and the heart of the country.

Land

The Philippines extend 1,152 mi (1,855 km) from north to south, between Taiwan and Borneo, and 688 mi (1,108 km) from east to west, and are bounded by the Philippine Sea on the east, the Celebes Sea on the south, and the South China Sea on the west. They comprise three natural divisions-the northern, which includes Luzon and attendant islands; the central, occupied by the Visayan Islands and Palawan and Mindoro; and the southern, encompassing Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. In addition to Manila, other important centers are Quezon City, also on Luzon; Cebu, on Cebu Island; Iloilo, on Panay; Davao and Zamboanga, on Mindanao; and Jolo, on Jolo Island in the Sulu Archipelago.

The Philippines are chiefly of volcanic origin. Most of the larger islands are traversed by mountain ranges, with Mt. Apo (9,690 ft/2,954 m), on Mindanao, the highest peak. Narrow coastal plains, wide valleys, volcanoes, dense forests, and mineral and hot springs further characterize the larger islands. Earthquakes are common. Of the navigable rivers, Cagayan, on Luzon, is the largest; there are also large lakes on Luzon and Mindanao.

The Philippines are entirely within the tropical zone. Manila, with a mean daily temperature of 79.5°F (26. 4°C), is typical of the climate of the lowland areas-hot and humid. The highlands, however, have a bracing climate; e.g., Baguio, the summer capital, on Luzon, has a mean annual temperature of 64°F (17.8°C). The islands are subject to typhoons, whose torrential rains can cause devastating floods; 5,000 people died on Leyte in 1991 from such flooding, and several storms in 2004 and 2006 caused deadly flooding and great destruction.

People

The great majority of the people of the Philippines belong to the Malay group and are known as Filipinos. Other groups include the Negritos (negroid pygmies) and the Dumagats (similar to the Papuans of New Guinea), and there is a small Chinese minority. The Filipinos live mostly in the lowlands and constitute one of the largest Christian groups in Asia. Roman Catholicism is professed by over 80% of the population; 5% are Muslims (concentrated on Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago; see Moros); about 2% are Aglipayans, members of the Philippine Independent Church, a nationalistic offshoot of Catholicism (see Aglipay, Gregorio); and there are Protestant and Evangelical groups. The official languages are Pilipino, based on Tagalog, and English; however, some 70 native languages are also spoken.

Economy

With their tropical climate, heavy rainfall, and naturally fertile volcanic soil, the Philippines have a strong agricultural sector, which employs over a third of the population. Sugarcane, coconuts, rice, corn, bananas, cassava, pineapples, and mangoes are the most important crops, and tobacco and coffee are also grown. Carabao (water buffalo), pigs, chickens, goats, and ducks are widely raised, and there is dairy farming. Fishing is a common occupation; the Sulu Archipelago is noted for its pearls and mother-of-pearl.

The islands have one of the world's greatest stands of commercial timber. There are also mineral resources such as petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, copper, zinc, chromite, and iron ore. Nonmetallic minerals include rock asphalt, gypsum, asbestos, sulfur, and coal. Limestone, adobe, and marble are quarried.

Manufacturing is concentrated in metropolitan Manila, near the nation's prime port, but there has been considerable industrial growth on Cebu, Negros, and Mindanao. Garments, footwear, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and wood products are manufactured, and the assembly of electronics and automobiles is important. Other industries include food processing and petroleum refining. The former U.S. military base at Subic Bay was redeveloped in the 1990s as a free-trade zone.

The economy has nonetheless remained weak, and many Filipinos have sought employment overseas; remittances from an estimated 8 million Filipinos abroad are economically important. Chief exports are semiconductors, electronics, transportation equipment, clothing, copper, petroleum products, coconut oil, fruits, lumber and plywood, machinery, and sugar. The main imports are electronic products, mineral fuels, machinery, transportation equipment, iron and steel, textiles, grains, chemicals, and plastic. The chief trading partners are the United States, Japan, China, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.

Government

The Philippines is governed under the constitution of 1987. The president, who is both head of state and head of the government, is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term. There is a bicameral legislature, the Congress. Members of the 24-seat Senate are popularly elected for six-year terms. The House of Representatives consists of not more than 250 members, who are popularly elected for three-year terms. There is an independent judiciary headed by a supreme court. Administratively, the republic is divided into 79 provinces and 117 chartered cities.

History

Early History

The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.

In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.

Spanish Control

The conquest of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi, arrived. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. By 1571, when López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold in the Philippines was secure, despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.

Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese).

The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a flourishing trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly laden galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Moros. Intermittent campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and acquired great amounts of property.

Revolution, War, and U.S. Control

It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.

After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey supplied Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old walled city of Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had also declared their independence and established a republic under the first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War.

In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield, the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United States-one that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American War. The insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but the question of Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic ties between the two countries. Although comparatively little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913.

When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to effect a smooth transition to self-rule. The Philippine assembly already had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house as well, with power to approve all appointments made by the governor-general. It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of independence, although no specific date was set.

When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing Filipinos into the government was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino activities with a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward the granting of immediate independence to the Philippines.

The Commonwealth

The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision. The bill had been drawn up with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader of the dominant Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American tariffs against Philippine products but principally because of the provisions leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act (1934) closely resembled the Hare-Howes-Cutting-Act, but struck the provisions for American bases and carried a promise of further study to correct "imperfections or inequalities."

The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935) was accepted by the Philippine people in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president (Sept.). When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov., 1941. To develop defensive forces against possible aggression, Gen. Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in 1935, and the following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth army.

World War II

War came suddenly to the Philippines on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan attacked without warning. Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer drive on Manila. MacArthur's scattered defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) were forced to withdraw to Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied Manila on Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar. 11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.

The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from Corregidor with a garrison of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his capitulation, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.

Japan's efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14, 1943) of a "Philippine Republic," with José P. Laurel, former supreme court justice, as president. But the people suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support. Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington. When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president. Osmeña returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes against Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.

The landing was followed (Oct. 23-26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the battle of Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively destroyed the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands. Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced "All the Philippines are now liberated." The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.

The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941. It faced enormous problems. The land was devastated by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña's leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.

The Republic of the Philippines

Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the Philippines when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar., 1947, the Philippines and the United States signed a military assistance pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the United States a 99-year lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement reduced the period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in Nov., 1949, Quirino defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of his own.

The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated by the activities in central Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in their efforts to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were largely brought under control (1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. The Huks continued to function, however, until 1970, and other Communist guerrilla groups have persisted in their opposition to the Philippine government. Magsaysay defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953, to win the presidency. He had promised sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform, opening new settlements outside crowded Luzon island. His death in an airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national morale. Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as president in the elections of Nov., 1957.

In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist policy and joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. There were difficulties with the United States over American military installations in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine sovereignty over these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease period was reduced. The United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade revisions.

Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption and anti-Americanism led, in June, 1959, to the union of the Liberal and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdad Macapagal, the Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961 elections. Macapagal's administration was marked by efforts to combat the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since its birth; by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial dispute with Britain over North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North Borneo Company in 1878.

Marcos and After

Ferdinand E. Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in 1968 he approved a congressional bill annexing Sabah to the Philippines. Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations. (The Philippines dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations and acts of terror, and in 1969, Marcos began a major military campaign to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao, where groups of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an unprecedented reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the election was accompanied by violence and charges of fraud, and Marcos's second term began with increasing civil disorder.

In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malcañang Palace, the presidential residence; riots erupted against the U.S. embassy. When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was made on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown at the speakers' platform, and several people were killed. President Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972, charging that a Communist rebellion threatened, and opposition to Marcos's government did swell the ranks of Communist guerrilla groups, which continued to grow into the mid-1980s and continued on a smaller scale into the 21st cent. The 1935 constitution was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided the president with direct powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in office beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the fighting on Mindanao had spread to the Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some 3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned. Throughout the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda Marcos, Ferdinand's wife, became more influential.

Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected, amid accusations of electoral fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which incited a new, more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential election, both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of Benigno), declared themselves the winner, and charges of massive fraud and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos's domestic and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25, 1986, eventually obtaining asylum in the United States.

Aquino's government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts, significant economic difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were evacuated in 1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially autonomous Muslim region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by her former army chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization plan premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased private investment, and political solutions to the continuing insurgencies within the country. His political program was somethat successful, opening dialogues with the Communist and Muslim guerillas. Although Muslim unrest and violence continued into the 21st cent, the government signed a peace accord with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) in 1996, which led to an expansion of the autonomous region in 2001.

Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on Luzon and a succession of severe typhoons, slowed the country's economic progress in the 1990s. The Philippines, however, escaped much of the economic turmoil seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following a slower pace of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund. Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie actor, was elected president in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order to remove protectionist provisions and attract more foreign investment.

Late in 2000, Estrada's presidency was buffetted by charges that he accepted millions of dollars in payoffs from illegal gambling operations. Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained strong, many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign. In Nov., 2000, Estrada was impeached by the house of representatives on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada's allies, provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president's bank records. As demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped him of the presidency, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada's successor. Estrada was indicted on charges of corruption in April, and his supporters attempted to storm the presidential palace in May. In Sept., 2007, he was convicted of corruption and sentenced to life imprisonment, but Estrada, who had been under house arrest since 2001, was pardoned the following month by President Macapagal-Arroyo.

A second Muslim rebel group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), agreed to a cease-fire in June, 2001, but fighting with fundamentalist Islamic guerrillas continued, and there was a MNLF uprising on Jolo in November. Following the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the U.S. government provided (2002) training and assistance to Philippine troops fighting the guerrillas. In 2003 fighting with the MILF again escalated, despite pledges by both sides that they would negotiate and exercise restraint; however, a truce was declared in July. In the same month several hundred soldiers were involved in a mutiny in Manila that the government claimed was part of a coup attempt.

Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after the election. A series of four devastating storms during November and December killed as many as 1,000 in the country's north and east, particularly on Luzon. In early 2005 heavy fighting broke out on Mindanao between government forces and a splinter group of MILF rebels, and there was also fighting with a MNLF splinter group in Jolo.

In June, 2005, the president was beset by a vote-rigging charge based on a tape of a conversation she had with an election official. She denied the allegation while acknowledging that she had been recorded and apologizing for what she called a lapse in judgment, but the controversy combined with other scandals (including allegations that her husband and other family members had engaged in influence peddling and received bribes) to create a national crisis. Promising government reform, she asked (July) her cabinet to resign, and several cabinet members subsequently called on Macapagal-Arroyo to resign (as did Corazon Aquino). At the same time the supreme court suspended sales tax increases that had been enacted in May as part of a tax reform package designed to reduce the government's debt. In August and September the president survived an opposition move to impeach her when her opponents failed to muster the votes needed to force a trial in the senate.

In Feb., 2006, the government engaged in talks, regarded as a prelude to formal peace negotiations, with the MILF, and dicussions between the two sides continued in subsequent months. Late in the month, President Macapagal-Arroyo declared a weeklong state of emergency when a coup plot against her was discovered. Intended to coincide with the 20th anniversary celebrations of the 1986 demonstrations that brought down Ferdinand Marcos, the coup was said to have involved several army generals and left-wing legislators. The state of emergency was challenged in court and upheld after the fact, but the supreme court declared aspects of the emergency's enforcement unconstitutional.

In October the supreme court declared a move to revise the constitution through a "people's initiative," replacing the presidential system of government with a parliamentary one, unconstitutional, but the government only abandoned its attempt to revise the constitution in December after the Roman Catholic church attacked an attempt by the house of representatives to call a constituent assembly and by the opposition-dominated senate. In 2006 there was fierce fighting on Jolo between government forces and Islamic militants; it continued into 2007, and there were also clashes in Basilan and Mindanao.

In Jan., 2007, a government commission blamed many of the more than 800 deaths of activists during Macapagal-Arroyo's presidency on the military. The president promised action in response to the report, but the chief of the armed forces denounced the report as unfair and strained. Congressional elections in May, 2007, were marred by fraud allegations and by violence during the campaign; the voting left the opposition in control of the senate and Macapagal-Arroyo's allies in control of the house. In November there was a brief occupation of a Manila hotel by soldiers, many of whom had been involved in the 2003 mutiny. In Oct., 2007, the president's husband was implicated in a kickback scandal involving a Chinese company; the investigation continued into 2008, and prompted demonstrations by her opponents and calls for her to resign.

A peace agreement that would have expanded the area of Mindanao that was part of the Muslim autonomous region was reached in principle with the MILF in Nov., 2007. Attempts to finalize the agreement, however, collapsed in July, 2008, when Muslims accused the government of reopening settled issues; the agreement was also challenged in court by Filipinos opposed to it. In August significant fighting broke out between government forces and rebels that the MILF said were renegades; two months later the supreme court declared the agreement unconstitutional. Fighting in the region continued into 2009.

Bibliography

See E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson, ed., The Philippine Islands, 1493-1888 (55 vol., 1903-9; Vol. LIII, Bibliography); L. Morton, The Fall of the Philippines (1953); T. Friend, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929-1946 (1965); E. G. Maring and J. M. Maring, Historical and Cultural Dictionary of the Philippines (1973); B. D. Romulo, Inside the Palace: The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos (1987); S. Burton, Impossible Dream: The Marcoses, the Aquinos, and the Unfinished Revolution (1988); D. J. Steinberg, The Philippines (1988); D. Wurfel, Filipino Politics (1988); S. Karnow, In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines (1989); B. M. Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902 (1989).

Psychoanalysis: Philippines

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The U.S. dominance of the university educational system in the Philippines in the early decades of the twentieth century meant that Filipino doctors looked to that country for its medical models. Several physicians studied in the United States and imbibed psychoanalytic theory from the American tradition.

One of the first was Virgilio Santiago, who completed his medical training at the University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines in 1949. This medical training led him to psychoanalytic training under Robert Waelder, a student of Freud's. He then went on to study at the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas. This was an unusual route to follow, since most psychiatrists were trained in the dominant organic school of psychiatry. In the 1950s psychoanalysis was strictly forbidden by the conservative Catholic clergy. Santiago was also discouraged by his colleagues from pursuing the field. Nonetheless, in a private practice he found a clientele among the expatriate population, and a small minority of Filipinos suffering from psychosis also consulted him. Santiago's general criticisms of the poor quality of Filipino health care suggest that the average Filipino was unsuited to psychoanalysis (Santiago, 1966).

Two other early pioneers were Baltazar Reyes and Rudolfo Varias. Reyes graduated from the University of the Philippines and then did postgraduate training at the Langley Porter Institute in California before returning to the Philippines to teach and research. Varias trained in classic psychoanalysis in New York. He returned to teach at the institute of public hygiene (now the College of Public Health). In the 1970s he returned to New York. His departure meant no further development of psychoanalytic psychotherapy at that time.

Not until the end of the 1960s, with the appearance of Lourdes Lapuz's A Study of Psychopathology (1969), was orthodox psychoanalytic theory again taken seriously. This groundbreaking book influenced a whole generation of psychiatrists, psychologists, and counselors, who remodeled the original psychoanalytic theory in which they had been instructed to suit the Filipino cultural mold. As in other Asian cultures, people's social and cultural expectations led them to view the doctor as an authority figure, and this required a more interactive role of the analyst. This book was followed by Children of Oedipus (Lapuz, 1973), which deals more fully with these issues. In her succeeding works she dealt with marital counseling and couple and family therapy (Lapuz, 1979).

In spite of these developments, however, the modern mental-health system remains poorly understood in the Philippines because of the low level of medical awareness of the population and the prevalence of alternatives to modern medicine, be they indigenous forms of herbal healing or even cult healing practices. These factors, coupled with a poor health-insurance system and a social need for gainful employment, have reduced the need for formal institutes of psychoanalysis and explain why the Philippines at the moment has no training analysts practicing psychoanalysis. Freud's work has not made a big impact in this predominately Catholic culture, where even today, teaching human sexuality from the point of view of psychology has not gained much ground in the academic world. Sex education consists largely of lectures on population control.

Bibliography

Estrada-Cristanto, T. (1997). Interview with Virgilio Santiago. November. Manila, Philippines. Unpublished.Lapuz, Lourdes. (1969). A study of psychopathology. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Lapuz, Lourdes. (1973). Children of Oedipus. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

——. (1979). Marriage counselling. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publications.

Santiago, Virgilio. (1966). Psychopathology of Sisa. ActaMedica Philippina, 2 (3), 140-145.

—GEOFFREY H. BLOWERS

History 1450-1789: Spanish Colonies: The Philippines

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This entry is a subtopic of Spanish Colonies.

The powerful nations of Europe undertook a global project of imperialism and colonization in the late fifteenth century. Spain and Portugal, followed by other European states, used religion as a motivating force for economic expansion. As a result of Europe's conquests and attempted conquests, the Americas and large segments of Asia were eventually subjugated and annexed as European possessions or outposts. Following Columbus's expeditions to America, Cortés's conquest of Mexico in 1519, and Magellan's "discovery" of the Philippines in 1521, a series of unsuccessful Spanish attempts to colonize the Philippine archipelago took place. It was not until 1565 that the first permanent Spanish settlement succeeded under Miguel López de Legazpi, a minor Spanish official in Mexico. It remained part of the Spanish empire until 1898.

On 13 February 1565, an expedition set out from New Spain (Mexico), reaching Gamay Bay off Samar Island, then proceeding to touch at Leyte, Camiguin, Bohol, and finally Cebu on 27 April. In May 1571 the group of settlers moved to Manila. Thereupon, Juan de Salcedo conducted an expedition of conquest around Laguna de Bay and down the Cagayan River. Martín de Goiti and one hundred soldiers penetrated the center of the island of Luzon. After 1571, Manila became the center of Spanish colonization. The original Spanish incentives to occupy the Philippines were control of the spice trade and control of Pacific trade routes. However, the Philippines were too far from the spice routes, and other European powers never acknowledged Spanish hegemony in the Pacific Ocean.

The Spanish home government set up a jurisdiction that placed the Philippines under the rule of the viceroy of Mexico. Like the Americas, the archipelago had a governor-general, an audiencia ('advisors and court'), and a cabildo ('town council') for the city of Manila. In the areas outside of Manila, alcaldías ('provinces') were organized, with an alcalde mayor ('provincial governor') as head.

What proved to be the major cultural force in the archipelago were the religious orders. Augustinians, Jesuits, Dominicans, and Franciscans were the frontline representatives of Western culture who indoctrinated and converted local peoples. They were followed by the secular clergy, who gradually took over the task of ensuring that the new converts to Christianity did not "relapse." Although the archipelago consists of almost seven thousand islands, not all were inhabited or came under Spanish rule. The southernmost parts of the archipelago were Muslim and remained so throughout Spanish occupation. As Christianity was extended throughout the islands, the Western value system it represented was incorporated into the native Malay society.

Local income from the tribute taxes imposed by the Spaniards was so low that it soon became clear that the maintenance of the Philippine archipelago as a colony in the Pacific was a financial drain on the Spanish Empire, and retaining the colony as the only Christian outpost in Asia became the new motivating force. The economy of the islands was in the hands of the "Manila Galleon," merchants who loaded a large ship with Asian luxury items each year and sold them in Acapulco, Mexico. On its return the Manila Galleon carried silver pesos.

In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a concentrated effort was made to develop agriculture and mining under the Bourbon dynasty. In the nineteenth century the external trade of the islands grew considerably, sparked by capital growth, large-scale imports of raw materials, and a rising population. English and American vessels unloaded wines, copper, nails, oil, and other manufactured goods, and in return carried away hemp, sugar, tobacco, and rice.

Spain's long colonial rule produced deep-rooted changes in Philippine society. Christianity, foreign commerce, and new political and economic relations, as well as new concepts of land use and land distribution, affected native society profoundly.

Bibliography

Cushner, Nicholas P. Spain in the Philippines: From Conquest to Revolution. Quezon City, Philippines, and Rutland, Vt., 1971.

Lyon, Eugene. "The Manila Galleon." National Geographic (January 1998).

Phelan, John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700. Madison, Wis., 1959.

Wickberg, Edgar. The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850–1898. Manila, Philippines, 2000.

—NICHOLAS P. CUSHNER

Geography: Philippines

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Republic in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, comprising over seven thousand islands. Its capital and largest city is Manila.

The Spanish held control of the islands until 1898, when they were transferred to the United States after the Spanish-American War.
Named for Philip II, king of Spain during the sixteenth century.
Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, the islands were liberated by Allied troops under General Douglas MacArthur.
Although Philippine independence had long been an important political issue, the country did not gain full independence until 1946.
The country was under the virtual dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 until 1986, when he was forced into exile in the United States.
It continues to be plagued by allegations of corruption in high places and by a Muslim insurgency.

Dialing Code: Philippines

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The international dialing code for Philippines is: 63

Maps: Philippines

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Local Time: Philippines

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It is 5:44 AM, November 9, in Philippines.

Currency: Philippines

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Philippine Peso

Statistics: Philippines

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Background:

The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a 10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese occupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power" movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2") demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace accord with one group and on-again/off-again peace talks with another.

Location:	Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam
Geographic coordinates:	13 00 N, 122 00 E
Map references:	Southeast Asia
Area:	total: 300,000 sq km land: 298,170 sq km water: 1,830 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly larger than Arizona
Land boundaries:	0 km
Coastline:	36,289 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: irregular polygon extending up to 100 nm from coastline as defined by 1898 treaty; since late 1970s has also claimed polygonal-shaped area in South China Sea up to 285 nm in breadth exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
Climate:	tropical marine; northeast monsoon (November to April); southwest monsoon (May to October)
Terrain:	mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Philippine Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Apo 2,954 m
Natural resources:	timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
Land use:	arable land: 19% permanent crops: 16.67% other: 64.33% (2005)
Irrigated land:	15,500 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:	479 cu km (1999)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):	total: 28.52 cu km/yr (17%/9%/74%) per capita: 343 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards:	astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis
Environment - current issues:	uncontrolled deforestation especially in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in major urban centers; coral reef degradation; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Geography - note:	the Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands; favorably located in relation to many of Southeast Asia's main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait

Population:	97,976,603 (July 2009 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 35.2% (male 17,606,352/female 16,911,376) 15-64 years: 60.6% (male 29,679,327/female 29,737,919) 65 years and over: 4.1% (male 1,744,248/female 2,297,381) (2009 est.)
Median age:	total: 22.5 years male: 22 years female: 23 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.957% (2009 est.)
Birth rate:	26.01 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate:	5.15 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate:	-1.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Urbanization:	urban population: 65% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 3% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 20.56 deaths/1,000 live births male: 23.17 deaths/1,000 live births female: 17.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 71.09 years male: 68.17 years female: 74.15 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate:	3.27 children born/woman (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	less than 0.1% (2003 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	8,300 (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	fewer than 200 (2007 est.)
Major infectious diseases:	degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis water contact disease: leptospirosis (2009)
Nationality:	noun: Filipino(s) adjective: Philippine
Ethnic groups:	Tagalog 28.1%, Cebuano 13.1%, Ilocano 9%, Bisaya/Binisaya 7.6%, Hiligaynon Ilonggo 7.5%, Bikol 6%, Waray 3.4%, other 25.3% (2000 census)
Religions:	Roman Catholic 80.9%, Muslim 5%, Evangelical 2.8%, Iglesia ni Kristo 2.3%, Aglipayan 2%, other Christian 4.5%, other 1.8%, unspecified 0.6%, none 0.1% (2000 census)
Languages:	Filipino (official; based on Tagalog) and English (official); eight major dialects - Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Bicol, Waray, Pampango, and Pangasinan
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.6% male: 92.5% female: 92.7% (2000 census)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):	total: 12 years male: 11 years female: 12 years (2006)
Education expenditures:	2.5% of GDP (2005)

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of the Philippines conventional short form: Philippines local long form: Republika ng Pilipinas local short form: Pilipinas
Government type:	republic
Capital:	name: Manila geographic coordinates: 14 35 N, 121 00 E time difference: UTC+8 (13 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:	80 provinces and 120 chartered cities provinces: Abra, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Aklan, Albay, Antique, Apayao, Aurora, Basilan, Bataan, Batanes, Batangas, Biliran, Benguet, Bohol, Bukidnon, Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Camiguin, Capiz, Catanduanes, Cavite, Cebu, Compostela, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Dinagat Islands, Eastern Samar, Guimaras, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo, Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, La Union, Leyte, Maguindanao, Marinduque, Masbate, Mindoro Occidental, Mindoro Oriental, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Mountain Province, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, North Cotabato, Northern Samar, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Romblon, Samar, Sarangani, Siquijor, Sorsogon, South Cotabato, Southern Leyte, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Tarlac, Tawi-Tawi, Zambales, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay chartered cities: Alaminos, Angeles, Antipolo, Bacolod, Bago, Baguio, Bais, Balanga, Batac, Batangas, Bayawan, Bislig, Butuan, Cabadbaran, Cabanatuan, Cadiz, Cagayan de Oro, Calamba, Calapan, Calbayog, Candon, Canlaon, Cauayan, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, Dagupan, Danao, Dapitan, Davao, Digos, Dipolog, Dumaguete, Escalante, Gapan, General Santos, Gingoog, Himamaylan, Iligan, Iloilo, Isabela, Iriga, Kabankalan, Kalookan, Kidapawan, Koronadal, La Carlota, Laoag, Lapu-Lapu, Las Pinas, Legazpi, Ligao, Lipa, Lucena, Maasin, Makati, Malabon, Malaybalay, Malolos, Mandaluyong, Mandaue, Manila, Marawi, Marikina, Masbate, Mati, Meycauayan, Muntinlupa, Munoz, Naga, Navotas, Olongapo, Ormoc, Oroquieta, Ozamis, Pagadian, Palayan, Panabo, Paranaque, Pasay, Pasig, Passi, Puerto Princesa, Quezon, Roxas, Sagay, Samal, San Carlos (in Negros Occidental), San Carlos (in Pangasinan), San Fernando (in La Union), San Fernando (in Pampanga), San Jose, San Jose del Monte, San Juan, San Pablo, Santa Rosa, Santiago, Silay, Sipalay, Sorsogon, Surigao, Tabaco, Tacloban, Tacurong, Tagaytay, Tagbilaran, Taguig, Tagum, Talisay (in Cebu), Talisay (in Negros Occidental), Tanauan, Tangub, Tanjay, Tarlac, Toledo, Tuguegarao, Trece Martires, Urdaneta, Valencia, Valenzuela, Victorias, Vigan, Zamboanga (2009)
Independence:	12 June 1898 (independence proclaimed from Spain); 4 July 1946 (from the US)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 12 June (1898); note - 12 June 1898 was date of declaration of independence from Spain; 4 July 1946 was date of independence from US
Constitution:	2 February 1987, effective 11 February 1987
Legal system:	based on Spanish and Anglo-American law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001); Vice President (Manuel "Noli" DE CASTRO (since 10 May 2004); note - president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO (since 20 January 2001) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with consent of Commission of Appointments elections: president and vice president elected on separate tickets by popular vote for a single six-year term; election last held on 10 May 2004 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO elected president; percent of vote - Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO 40%, Fernando POE 37%, three others 23%
Legislative branch:	bicameral Congress or Kongreso consists of the Senate or Senado (24 seats - one-half elected every three years; members elected at large by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Kapulungan Ng Nga Kinatawan (as a result of May 2007 election it has 240 seats including 218 members representing districts and 22 sectoral party-list members representing special minorities elected on the basis of 1 seat for every 2% of the total vote but limited to 3 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms; note - the Constitution prohibits the House of Representatives from having more than 250 members) elections: Senate - last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010); House of Representatives - elections last held on 14 May 2007 (next to be held in May 2010) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lakas 4, LP 4, Nacionalista 3, NPC 2, PDP-Laban 2, PMP 2, Kampi 1, LDP 1, PRP 1, independents 3; note - there are 23 rather than 24 sitting senators because one senator was elected mayor of Manila; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lakas 92, Kampi 54, NPC 25, LP 21, Party-list 22, independents 3, others 26; there are 238 rather than 240 sitting representatives because two died in office
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court (15 justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until 70 years of age); Court of Appeals; Sandigan-bayan (special court for hearing corruption cases of government officials)
Political parties and leaders:	Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino or Kampi [Luis VILLAFUERTE]; Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino (Struggle of Filipino Democrats) or LDP [Edgardo ANGARA]; Lakas ng EDSA-Christian Muslim Democrats or Lakas-CMD [Prospero NOGRALES]; Liberal Party or LP [Manuel ROXAS]; Nacionalista Party or NP [Manuel VILLAR]; Nationalist People's Coalition or NPC [Frisco SAN JUAN]; PDP-Laban [Aquilino PIMENTEL]; People's Reform Party [Miriam Defensor SANTIAGO]; Puwersa ng Masang Pilipino (Force of the Philippine Masses) or PMP [Joseph ESTRADA]; United Opposition or UNO [Jejomar BINAY]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	ABONO [Robert ESTRELLA]; AKBAYAN [Anna Theresia BARAQUIEL]; An Waray [Florencio NOEL]; Anak Mindanao [Mujiv HATAMIN]; ANAKPAWIS [Rafael MARIANO]; ARC [Narciso SANTIAGO III]; Association of Philippine Electric Cooperatives (APEC) [Ernesto PABLO and Edgar VALDEZ]; A TEACHER [Mariano PIAMONTE]; Bayan Muna [Satur OCAMPO and Teodoro CASINO, Jr.]; Black and White Movement [Vicente ROMANO]; BUHAY [Rene VELARDE, Carissa COSCOLLUELLA, and William TIENG]; BUTIL [Leonila CHAVEZ]; CIBAC [Emmanuel Joel VILLANUEVA]; COOP-NATCO [Jose PING-AY]; GABRIELA [Liza MAZA and Luzviminda ILAGAN]; Kilosbayan [Jovito SALONGA]; YACAP [Carol LOPEZ]
International organization participation:	ADB, APEC, APT, ARF, ASEAN, BIS, CP, EAS, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PIF (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNMIT, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Willy C. GAA chancery: 1600 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 467-9300 FAX: [1] (202) 467-9417 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), San Francisco, Tamuning (Guam)
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Kristie A. KENNEY embassy: 1201 Roxas Boulevard, Ermita 1000, Manila mailing address: PSC 500, FPO AP 96515-1000 telephone: [63] (2) 301-2000 FAX: [63] (2) 301-2399
Flag description:	two equal horizontal bands of blue (top; representing peace and justice) and red (representing courage); a white equilateral triangle based on the hoist side represents equality; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing one of the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star representing the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897; in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top

Economy - overview:	Economic growth has averaged 5% since President MACAPAGAL-ARROYO took office in 2001. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO averted a fiscal crisis by pushing for new revenue measures and, until recently, tightening expenditures. Declining fiscal deficits, tapering debt and debt service ratios, and increased spending on infrastructure and social services bolstered optimism over Philippine economic prospects. Although the general macroeconomic outlook improved significantly in recent years, the economy still faces several long term challenges. The Philippines must maintain the reform momentum in order to catch up with regional competitors, improve employment opportunities, and alleviate poverty. The Philippines will need still higher, sustained growth to make progress in alleviating poverty, given its high population growth and unequal distribution of income. The Philippine economy grew at its fastest pace in three decades in 2007 with real GDP growth exceeding 7%, but growth slowed to 4.5% in 2008 as a result of the world financial crisis. High government spending, a relatively small trade sector, a resilient service sector, and large remittances from the four- to five-million Filipinos who work abroad have helped cushion the economy from the current financial crisis.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$320.6 billion (2008 est.) $306.5 billion (2007) $285.9 billion (2006) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate):	$168.6 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	4.6% (2008 est.) 7.2% (2007 est.) 5.4% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):	$3,300 (2008 est.) $3,300 (2007 est.) $3,100 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 14.7% industry: 31.6% services: 53.7% (2008 est.)
Labor force:	36.81 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 35% industry: 15% services: 50% (2008 est.)
Unemployment rate:	7.4% (2008 est.)
Population below poverty line:	30% (2003 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: 2.4% highest 10%: 31.2% (2006)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:	45.8 (2006)
Investment (gross fixed):	16.8% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $26.75 billion expenditures: $28.2 billion (2008 est.)
Fiscal year:	calendar year
Public debt:	56.5% of GDP (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	9.3% (2008 est.)
Central bank discount rate:	6% (31 December 2008)
Commercial bank prime lending rate:	8.69% (31 December 2007)
Stock of money:	$22.53 billion (31 December 2008)
Stock of quasi money:	$65.85 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit:	$65.66 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares:	$85.6 billion (31 December 2008)
Agriculture - products:	sugarcane, coconuts, rice, corn, bananas, cassavas, pineapples, mangoes; pork, eggs, beef; fish
Industries:	electronics assembly, garments, footwear, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, wood products, food processing, petroleum refining, fishing
Industrial production growth rate:	5% (2008 est.)
Electricity - production:	56.51 billion kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - consumption:	47.04 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - exports:	0 kWh (2007)
Electricity - imports:	0 kWh (2007)
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 55.6% hydro: 17.5% nuclear: 0% other: 26.9% (2001)
Oil - production:	23,930 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - consumption:	340,100 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports:	41,160 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - imports:	355,800 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - proved reserves:	138.5 million bbl (1 January 2008 est.)
Natural gas - production:	2.2 billion cu m (2006 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:	2.2 billion cu m (2006 est.)
Natural gas - exports:	0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - imports:	0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:	98.54 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
Current account balance:	$2.687 billion (2008 est.)
Exports:	$49 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports - commodities:	semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, fruits
Exports - partners:	US 17%, Japan 14.5%, Hong Kong 11.5%, China 11.4%, Netherlands 8.2%, Singapore 6.2%, Malaysia 5%, Germany 4.3% (2007)
Imports:	$58 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports - commodities:	electronic products, mineral fuels, machinery and transport equipment, iron and steel, textile fabrics, grains, chemicals, plastic
Imports - partners:	US 14.1%, Japan 12.3%, Singapore 11.2%, Taiwan 7.3%, China 7.2%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, South Korea 5.9%, Malaysia 4.1%, Thailand 4.1% (2007)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$36.15 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Debt - external:	$53.48 billion (31 September 2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:	$20.78 billion (2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:	$5.564 billion (2008 est.)
Currency (code):	Philippine peso (PHP)
Currency code:	PHP
Exchange rates:	Philippine pesos (PHP) per US dollar - 44.439 (2008 est.), 46.148 (2007), 51.246 (2006), 55.086 (2005), 56.04 (2004)

Telephones - main lines in use:	3.633 million (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	51.795 million (2007)
Telephone system:	general assessment: good international radiotelephone and submarine cable services; domestic and interisland service adequate domestic: domestic satellite system with 11 earth stations; cellular communications now dominate the industry; combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone density about 60 telephones per 100 persons international: country code - 63; a series of submarine cables together provide connectivity to Asia, US, the Middle East, and Europe; multiple international gateways (2007)
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 381, FM 628, shortwave 4 (2007)
Radios:	11.5 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:	250 (plus 1,501 CATV networks) (2007)
Televisions:	3.7 million (1997)
Internet country code:	.ph
Internet hosts:	283,579 (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	33 (2000)
Internet users:	5.3 million (2007)

Airports:	254 (2008)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 85 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 7 1,524 to 2,437 m: 28 914 to 1,523 m: 36 under 914 m: 10 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 169 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 66 under 914 m: 99 (2008)
Heliports:	2 (2007)
Pipelines:	oil 107 km; refined products 112 km (2008)
Railways:	total: 897 km narrow gauge: 897 km 1.067-m gauge (492 km are in operation) (2006)
Roadways:	total: 200,037 km paved: 19,804 km unpaved: 180,233 km (2003)
Waterways:	3,219 km (limited to vessels with draft less than 1.5 m) (2008)
Merchant marine:	total: 391 by type: bulk carrier 75, cargo 125, carrier 16, chemical tanker 17, container 6, liquefied gas 5, passenger 6, passenger/cargo 68, petroleum tanker 36, refrigerated cargo 15, roll on/roll off 11, vehicle carrier 11 foreign-owned: 161 (Bermuda 34, China 4, Greece 4, Hong Kong 1, Japan 81, Malaysia 1, Netherlands 23, Norway 10, Singapore 1, Taiwan 1, UAE 1) registered in other countries: 11 (Comoros 1, Cyprus 1, Hong Kong 1, Indonesia 1, Panama 7) (2008)
Ports and terminals:	Cagayan de Oro, Cebu, Davao, Liman, Manila, Nasipit Harbor
Transportation - note:	the International Maritime Bureau reports the territorial and offshore waters in the South China Sea as high risk for piracy and armed robbery against ships; numerous commercial vessels have been attacked and hijacked both at anchor and while underway; hijacked vessels are often disguised and cargo diverted to ports in East Asia; crews have been murdered or cast adrift

Military branches:	Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP): Army, Navy (includes Marine Corps and Coast Guard), Air Force (2009)
Military service age and obligation:	18-25 years of age (officers 21-29) for compulsory and voluntary military service; applicants must be single male or female Philippine citizens (2007)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 16-49: 23,547,252 females age 16-49: 23,177,487 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 16-49: 19,169,298 females age 16-49: 20,636,853 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:	male: 1,023,431 female: 986,434 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures:	0.9% of GDP (2005 est.)

Disputes - international:	Philippines claims sovereignty over certain of the Spratly Islands, known locally as the Kalayaan (Freedom) Islands, also claimed by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam; the 2002 "Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea," has eased tensions in the Spratly Islands but falls short of a legally binding "code of conduct" desired by several of the disputants; in March 2005, the national oil companies of China, the Philippines, and Vietnam signed a joint accord to conduct marine seismic activities in the Spratly Islands; Philippines retains a dormant claim to Malaysia's Sabah State in northern Borneo based on the Sultanate of Sulu's granting the Philippines Government power of attorney to pursue a sovereignty claim on his behalf; maritime delimitation negotiations continue with Palau
Refugees and internally displaced persons:	IDPs: 300,000 (fighting between government troops and MILF and Abu Sayyaf groups) (2007)
Illicit drugs:	domestic methamphetamine production has been a growing problem in recent years despite government crackdowns; major consumer of amphetamines; longstanding marijuana producer mainly in rural areas where Manila's control is limited

Local Cuisine: Philippines

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Coconut Buying and Opening

To select a fresh coconut, shake it to feel the sloshing of liquid inside. A cracked or old coconut will be empty and dry.
Opening the coconut: Locate the brown eye-like spots at one end and pierce with a sharp point. Drain off the liquid. Preheat oven to 400°F. Place the coconut in the oven on a cookie sheet and bake for 15 minutes. Remove the coconut and wrap in a clean kitchen towel. Carefully crack it open with a hammer. The coconut meat should be broken away carefully from the shell. If a portion is not broken easily away from the shell, return the coconut to the oven for a few minutes more.

Making Shredded Coconut

Once all of the meat is out of the shell, you can grate the meat with a small hand grater, shred the meat in a food processor, or with a sharp knife. One coconut makes about 4 cups of shredded coconut.

Recipes

Leche Flan (Caramel Custard)
Coconut Milk
Maja Blanco (Coconut Cake)
Adobong Hiponsa Gata (Shrimp Adobo)
Tsokolate (Hot Chocolate)
Sinangag (Garlic Rice)
Pansit Mami (Noodles In Broth)
Polvoron (Powdered Milk Candy)

Geographic Setting and Environment

The Republic of the Philippines consists of a group of 7,107 islands situated southeast of mainland Asia and separated from it by the South China Sea. The two largest islands are Luzon (40,814 square miles/105,708 square kilometers), and Mindanao (36,906 square miles/95,586 square kilometers). Comparatively, the area occupied by the Philippines is slightly larger than the state of Arizona. The land is varied, with volcanic mountain masses forming the cores of most of the larger islands. A number of volcanoes are active, and the islands have been subject to destructive earthquakes. Lowlands are generally narrow coastal strips except for larger plains in Luzon and Mindanao. Forests cover almost one-half of the land area and are typically tropical, with vines and other climbing plants.

Pollution from industrial sources and mining operations is a significant environmental problem in the Philippines. Almost forty of the country's rivers contain high levels of toxic contaminants. About 23 percent of the nation's rural dwellers do not have pure water, while 93 percent of the city dwellers do not have pure water. Also threatened are the coastal mangrove swamps, which serve as important fish breeding grounds, and offshore corals, about 50 percent of which are rated dead or dying as a result of pollution and dynamiting by fishermen. The nation is also vulnerable to typhoons, earthquakes, floods, and volcanoes.

History and Food

The Philippines' location between the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean has made the islands a crossing point for migrating people all over the world. As a result, the Philippines is made up of a range of different people and ethnic groups. While there are many different dialects and languages, Tagalog is the national language. The people of the Philippines are called Filipino. Filipino cuisine reflects the blending of these wide and varied cultures.

Malays, from Malaysia, were among the first inhabitants of the Philippines over 20,000 years ago. They brought with them the knowledge of preparing hot chilies and the use of ginataan, or coconut milk, in sauces to balance the spiciness.

The Chinese established colonies in the Philippines between 1200 and 1300. They introduced pansit, or Chinese noodle dishes, and bean curds. Later came egg rolls, and soy sauce. Like the Chinese, the Filipinos consume a wide array of dipping sauces to accompany their dishes.

Spain occupied the Philippines for almost 400 years, beginning in 1521. This colonization had a major impact on Filipino cuisine. A majority of the dishes prepared in modern Philippines can be traced back to Spain. In fact, everyday Filipino dishes resemble Spanish cooking more than native meals. The Spaniards introduced a Mediterranean style of eating and preparing food. Techniques such as braising and sautéing, and meals cooked in olive oil, are examples. Spain also introduced cooking with seasonings, such as garlic, onions, tomatoes, sweet peppers, and vinegar.

The United States took control of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War in 1898, staying through World War II (1939–1945) until 1946. The U. S. military introduced goods shipped in from their country such as mayonnaise, hot dogs, hamburgers, and apple pies. Canned evaporated and condensed milk often replace the traditional buffalo milk used in desserts, such as flan (caramel custard). Nowhere else in Asian cuisine can cheese and canned tomato sauce be found in recipes. All of these foods are still favorites of the Filipinos and can be found almost anywhere in the country.

See Leche Flan (Caramel Custard) recipe.

Foods of the Filipinos

Like other Southeast Asian cuisines, the Filipinos eat a lot of vegetables and rice. Similarly, they also eat many types of seafood, saving meat for more special occasions (often in the form of lechon, or whole roasted pig). The waters surrounding the Philippines islands provide over 2,000 species of fish. In addition, Filipinos have been farming fish in palaisdaan, or fishponds, using aquaculture (raising fish and shellfish in controlled conditions) for over 1,000 years. Patis, a clear, amber-colored fish sauce, is used in Filipino dishes as much as soy sauce is used in China.

For over 2,000 years, rice has been grown in the Philippines and is eaten almost daily. As of the twenty-first century, over twenty varieties of rice are cultivated, which are made into thousands of different cakes, noodles, and pancakes. Rice noodles are common in fast-food restaurants and stands, served heaping with a choice of different meats and vegetables. Noodles symbolize prosperity, long life, and good luck. Filipinos believe the longer the noodles, the better, so noodles are generally not broken or cut when a dish is being prepared.

Since the weather in the Philippines is tropical, many types of fruit are grown. Pineapples, strawberries, cantaloupe, melon, kiwi, bananas, guapple (a cross between a guava and an apple) and coconut are just a few examples. Coconuts are plentiful and are used in and on everything. The coconut meat inside can be eaten, and the ginataang (milk from the meat) can be used in refreshing drinks or for sauces to cook fruits and vegetables in, such as adobong hipon sa gata (shrimp adobo in coconut milk). It can also be grated or baked into desserts and sweets, such as maja blanca (coconut cake).

See Coconut Milk recipe.

See Maja Blanco (Coconut Cake) recipe.

See Adobong Hiponsa Gata (Shrimp Adobo in Coconut Milk) recipe.

Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations

Christian holidays are the most widely celebrated holidays in the Philippines. This is because Spain introduced the Catholic religion centuries ago when it occupied the Philippines. In the twenty-first century, about 90 percent of Filipinos are Roman Catholic Christians. The Philippines is the only Asian country that is primarily Christian. Filipinos claim to have one of the world's longest Christmas celebrations. Their celebration begins December 16 and lasts for three weeks. On Pasko Ng Bata, Christmas Day, families may gather to eat lumpia (spring rolls), and drink tsokolate (a native chocolate drink) and salabat (ginger tea).

See Tsokolate (Hot Chocolate) recipe.

Filipino families meet to share a Christmas meal, but they save their Christmas feast for Epiphany. The holiday season ends with the Feast of the Epiphany, which is on the first Sunday in January. This is when families gather to eat pork lechon, which is a whole pig roasted outside over a spitfire of burning coals. Served with the pork are a garlic rice called sinangag and other rice dishes, such as bibingka (rice cake with salted eggs and fresh coconut meat) and suman (steamed rice wrapped in banana leaves). Vegetable dishes and assorted fruits, such as pineapples, bananas, persimmons (very tart fruit that looks similar to a tomato), and papayas, are eaten as well. Desserts, cookies, and cakes top off the huge feast, which can go on for several hours and then is followed by a long afternoon nap.

See Sinangag (Garlic Rice) recipe.

Mealtime Customs

Filipino dishes are based more on distinctive tastes and textures than different courses. Instead of serving courses separately, they are all brought to the table at one time so the diners can enjoy all flavors and dishes together. Dining at a Filipino table is similar to eating at a buffet. Even the dessert is part of the buffet-style meal. The dessert provides a sweet balance to the salty and sour tastes that are part of a meal.

Unlike in much of the Western world, burping is not considered rude in the Philippines where it means you are full and enjoyed the meal. Sometimes a burp is followed with the expression, Ay, salamat, which means, "Ahh, thank you."

Anyone who visits a Filipino home, no matter what time of day, is offered food. If the guest interrupts a meal, which is common because most Filipinos eat five or more meals a day, they are invited to join the diners. Eating is so constant, in fact, that many Filipinos use "Kumain ka na?" ("Have you eaten yet?") as a general greeting to each other.

Before outside influences, Filipinos used their hands to eat. The traditional way of eating was to scoop up food from flat dishes with fingers of the right hand. Some upscale native restaurants in Manila, the country's capital, serve food this way. With Western influences and the introduction of knives, forks and spoons, Filipinos have adapted their ways. The fork and spoon are the two main utensils of choice. The fork is held with the left hand and the spoon in the right. The fork is used to spear and hold the piece of food while the spoon is used to cut or tear off small pieces.

Almusal (breakfast) is the first meal of the day, and usually consists of leftovers from the previous evening's dinner, like garlic fried rice and cured meat. Ginger tea is usually drunk. Ensaimada (fluffy, sugared, coiled buns), smoked fish, salted duck eggs, fried eggs, Chinese ham, Spanish sausages, and fresh mangos are just some of the foods that might be eaten.

For lunch, mongo (a stew of munggo—mung beans—and shrimp with olive oil and lime juice), caldereta (goat and potato stew), and ensaladang balasens, an eggplant salad, may be eaten. All of these dishes are typically accompanied by white rice. Most school students carry lunchboxes to school. In it, they would have a thermos with a sugary fruit drink, a large container of plain white rice, a small container with fried fish or chicken, and a small container of tomato sauce on the side. They would typically not take any fruit or vegetables. A student's lunch box also might contain a peanut butter sandwich for an afternoon snack.

For dinner, Filipinos will often go to a simple turo-turo restaurant. This literally means "point point," which is how they select their food. They may choose menudo (hearty pork and chickpea stew), or pansit (noodle) dishes, such as pansit mami (noodles in broth). If they decide to go a fancier restaurant, they might enjoy patang bawang, which are deep-fried pork knuckles with garlic and chilies, and maybe a wedge of American-style lemon meringue pie for dessert.

See Pansit Mami (Noodles in Broth) recipe.

See Polvoron (Powdered Milk Candy) recipe.

Politics, Economics, and Nutrition

About 22 percent of the population of the Philippines are classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 30 percent are underweight, and nearly one-third are stunted (short for their age). Government-financed child health malnutrition programs are already well established in the Philippines; however, these programs lack significant funding and malnutrition continues to be a primary concern. Indigenous (native) foods such as mung beans and powdered shrimp are available for infants and children, but protein, iron, iodine, and Vitamin A remain deficient in their diets.

An increase in community involvement since the 1980s has helped to keep the population aware of the problems with malnourished children. Such awareness has led to a gradual improvement in health care for all Filipinos. As of 1996, a vast majority (91 percent) of those living in urban areas also had access to clean and safe water, as did 81 percent of those living in rural areas.

Further Study

Books

Fertig, Theresa Kryst. Christmas in the Philippines. Chicago: World Book, 1990.

Hyman, Gwenda L. Cuisines of Southeast Asia. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993.

Jaffrey, Madhur. Far Eastern Cookery. New York: Harper & Row, 1989.

Osborne, Christine. Southeast Asian Food and Drink. New York: Bookwright, 1989.

Web Sites

Filipino Web. [Online] Available http://www.filipinoweb.com/art_cuisine.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

Global Gourmet. [Online] Available http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/philippines/phileat.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

Tribo. [Online] Available http://www.tribo.org/filipinofood/food2.html (accessed March 14, 2001).

National Anthem: National Anthem of: Philippines

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Bayang magiliw
Perlas ng Silanganan
Alab ng puso
Sa dibdib mo'y buhay.

Lupang hinirang,
Duyan ka ng magiting,
Sa manlulupig
Di ka pasisiil.

Sa dagat at bundok
Sa simoy at sa langit mong bughaw;
May dilag and tula
At awit sa paglayang minamahal.

Ang kislap ng watawat mo'y
Tagumpay na nagniningning,
Ang bituin at araw niya
Kailan pa ma'y di magdidilim.

Lupa ng araw, ng luwalhati't pagsinta,
Buhay at langit sa piling mo;
Aming ligaya na pag may mang-aapi
Ang mamatay ng dahil sa iyo.

English Version

Land of the morning
Child of the sun returning
With fervor burning
Thee do our souls adore.

Land dear and holy,
Cradle of noble heroes,
Ne'er shall invaders
Trample thy sacred shores.

Ever within thy skies and through thy clouds
And o'er thy hills and seas;
Do we behold thy radiance, feel the throb
Of glorious liberty.

Thy banner dear to all hearts
Its sun and stars alright,
Oh, never shall its shining fields
Be dimmed by tyrants might.

Beautiful land of love, oh land of light,
In thine embrace 'tis rapture to lie;
But it is glory ever when thou art wronged
For us thy sons to suffer and die.

Wikipedia: Philippines

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This article is about the country in Southeast Asia. For the town in the Netherlands, see Philippine (Netherlands).

Republic of the Philippines

Republika ng Pilipinas


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: Maka-Diyos, Maka-Tao, Makakalikasan, at Makabansa^[1]
("For God, People, Nature, and Country")

Anthem: Lupang Hinirang
("Chosen Land")

Location of Philippines (green)

in ASEAN (dark grey) — [Legend]

Capital

Manila
14°35′N 121°0′E / 14.583°N 121°E

Largest city

Quezon City

Official languages Filipino (Tagalog) , English

Recognised regional languages Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilokano, Kapampangan, Kinaray-a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Tausug, Waray-Waray ^[2]

Voluntary and optional languages Spanish and Arabic

National language

Filipino

Demonym Filipino or Pinoy

Government

Unitary presidential constitutional republic

- President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

- Vice President Noli de Castro

- Senate President Juan Ponce Enrile

- House Speaker Prospero C. Nograles

- Supreme Court Chief Justice Reynato Puno

Independence from Spain³
from United States

- Established April 27, 1565

- Declared June 12, 1898

- Self-government March 24, 1934

- Recognized July 4, 1946

- Current constitution February 2, 1987

Area

- Total 300,000 km² ^[3](72nd)
115,831 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.61%^[3]

Population

- 2009 estimate 91,983,000^[4] (12th)

- 2007 census 88,574,614 ^[5]

- Density 306.6/km² (44th)
794.1/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate

- Total $317.964 billion^[6] (36th)

- Per capita $3,515^[6] (123rd)

GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate

- Total $166.909 billion^[6] (47th)

- Per capita $1,845^[6] (121st)

Gini (2006) 45.8^[3] (medium)

HDI (2007) ▲ 0.751^[7] (medium) (105th)

Currency Peso (Filipino: piso ) (PHP)

Time zone PST (UTC+8)

- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+0)

Drives on the right^[8]

Internet TLD

.ph

Calling code 63

¹ Spanish and Arabic are recognized as auxiliary languages in the Philippine Constitution.

² Rankings above were taken from associated Wikipedia pages as of December, 2007, and may be based on data or data sources other than those appearing here.

³ Philippine revolutionaries declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898, but the Spanish claim of sovereignty was passed from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. This led to the Philippine-American War.

The Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas [pɪlɪˈpinɐs]) officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. To its west across the South China Sea is Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest separates it from the island of Borneo and to the south the Celebes Sea from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines has the 5th longest coastline in the world.^[9]^[10] The islands are categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.^[3] The capital city is Manila.

With an estimated population of about 92 million people, the Philippines is the world's 12th most populous country.^[11]^[12] It is estimated that there are about 11 million overseas Filipinos worldwide, equivalent to about 11% of the total population of the Philippines.^[13] Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. Ecologically, the Philippines with its tropical climate is one of the most diverse countries in the world.^[14]

Its national economy is the 47th largest in the world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP nominal) of over US$ 166.9 billion (nominal).^[15] Primary exports include semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, and fruits.^[3] Major trading partners include China, Japan, the United States, Singapore, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia.^[3] Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso (PHP).

In ancient times the archipelago was populated by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who established rival Malay, Hindu, and Islamic maritime states. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 marked the beginning of an era of Spanish interest and eventually dominance. The Philippines became the Asian hub of the Manila-Acapulco galleon treasure fleet. Christianity became widespread and there was a brief British Invasion. Imperialism enforced the unification of subjugated peoples and as the 19th century gave way to the 20th, there followed in quick succession the short-lived Philippine Revolution, the Spanish-American War, and the Philippine-American War. In the aftermath, the United States replaced Spain as the dominant power. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until the end of World War II when the Philippines gained independence. The United States bequeathed to the Philippines the English language and its democratic presidential system of government. Since independence the Philippines has had an often tumultuous experience with democracy, with popular "People Power" movements overthrowing a dictatorship in one instance but also underlining the institutional weaknesses of its constitutional republic in others.

Etymology

Main article: Name of the Philippines

The name Philippines was derived from King Philip II of Spain in the 16th century. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos used the name Las Islas Filipinas, in honor of the Prince of Asturias (Spain) during his expedition to the islands, originally referring to the islands of Leyte and Samar.^[16]^[17] Despite the presence of other names, the name Filipinas was chosen as the name of the archipelago.

The official name of the Philippines changed throughout the course of its history. During the Philippine Revolution, it was officially called República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish-American War and the Philippine-American War, until the Commonwealth period, American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands, a translation of the original Spanish name. It was during the American period that the name Philippines began to appear, a name that has become its common name. The official name of the country is now Republic of the Philippines.

History

Main article: History of the Philippines

Early History

Panoramic view of the Banaue Rice Terraces.

The earliest evidence of human inhabitants on the islands include the 40,000-year-old Tabon Man of Palawan and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal, both of whom appear to suggest the presence of human settlement prior to the arrival of the Negritos and Austronesians.^[18] The Negritos began to settle on the islands 30,000 years ago, before the end of the last Ice Age.

A Pre-Classical indigenous Ifugao village.

Speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, a branch of Austronesian languages, began to arrive in successive waves beginning about 6,000 years ago, displacing the early settlers.^[19]

A Bontoc warrior (circa 1908). This Igorot group formerly practiced headhunting.^[20]

During 2205 to 2106 B.C.E., the Ifugao fled their ancestral homeland in mainland Asia and migrated to the Cordilleras. Thereafter, they established a plutocratic society^[21] and built the Banaue Rice Terraces on the highland regions of central Luzon.^[22]

By 1000 B.C.E. the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots & the Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and are concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as the Isneg & Kalingas who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains; the petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupy the mountain ranges of Luzon; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime trade.^[23]

Around 300–700 C.E. the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began to trade with the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago and the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting influences from both Buddhism and Hinduism.^[24]^[25]

Classical Epoch

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription: The oldest known legal document from the Dynasty of Tondo.

In the years leading up to 1000 C.E., there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging is size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus, rajahs or sultans^[26] or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". States such as the Kingdom of Maynila and Namayan, the Dynasty of Tondo, the Confederation of Madyaas, the rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao and Sulu existed alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30] Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.^[31]^[32]^[33]

A golden statuette of the Hindu-Buddhist goddess "Kinari".

In the year 900 the Dynasty of Tondo centered in Manila Bay flourished via an active trade with Chinese sea-traders in the area. Later serving as a smuggling nexus after the Chinese imposed restrictions on their foreign trade.^[34] During this time, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the Philippine's oldest known document the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.^[35]

A page from the Boxer Codex showing prehispanic Philippine royalty. Left, is a general from the Rajahnate of Butuan & to the right is a princess of the Tondo dynasty; both are wearing clothes woven in pure gold.

By year 1011 Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a maritime-state famous for its goldwork^[36] sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states.^[37] The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals the Dynasty of Tondo and the Champa civilization.^[38] Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.^[39]

By the 11th century several exiled datus of the collapsing empire of the Srivijaya^[40] led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it the Confederation of Madyaas centered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands of the Visayas. This confederation reached its peak under Datu Padojinog. During his reign the confederations' hegemony extended over most of the islands of Visayas. Its people consistently made piratical attacks against Chinese imperial shipping.^[41]

The flag of the Sulu sultanate.

In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab trader born in Johore, arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu and this Sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its manufacture of fine pearls.^[42] Also, at the end of the 15th Century Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married princess Parmisuli from Mindanao and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao.^[43] By the 16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and Luzon.

However, during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521, the Sultanate of Brunei decided to break the Dynasty of Tondo's monopoly in the China trade by attacking Tondo and establishing the state of Selurong (now Manila) as a Bruneian satellite-state.^[44]^[45] A new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah Salalila^[46] was also established to challenge the House of Lakandula in Tondo.^[47] Islam was further strengthened by the arrival to the Philippines of traders and proselytizers from Malaysia and Indonesia.^[48]

Colonial Era

In 1521, Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in Samar and Leyte and claimed the islands for Spain^[49] but was killed by a militia from Mactan island ruled by the datu Lapu-Lapu. The survivors of the expedition, however, returned to Spain and served as the impetus for the further discovery and conquest of the Philippine Islands.^[49]

A statue of Lapu-Lapu, the Mactan datu who led the group of warriors that killed Ferdinand Magellan on April 27, 1521. He is now regarded as the first Filipino hero.^[50]

Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi, arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. In 1571, the Spanish occupied the kingdoms of Maynila and Tondo and established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies.^[51]^[52] Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de Legazpi's conquest of the Confederation of Madya-as, his subjugation of Rajah Tupas the King of Cebu and Juan de Salcedo's ransacking of the Chinese warlord Limahong's pirate kingdom in Pangasinan. This grab for power eventually culminated with the mass murder and exile of the royal families of the Dynasty of Tondo & the Kingdom of Maynila when the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588 failed^[53] in which a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Empire's admiral Gayo, Butuan's last rajah and Brunei's Sultan Bolkieh, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legazpi (great grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the initiator of the plot) and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo).^[54]

In the following years, the colony was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico, from 1565 to 1821 and administered directly from Spain from 1821 to 1898. Subsequently, the Aztec and Mayan mercenaries Legaspi brought with him eventually settled in Mexico, Pampanga where traces of Aztec and Mayan influence can still be proven by the many chico plantations in the area (chico is a fruit indigenous only to Mexico) and also by the name of the province itself.^[55]

The "Chico" (Sapodilla) is a popular fruit eaten in the Philippines. Originally, indigenous only to Aztec America; it has been introduced to the country by Mexican immigrants and is now part of popular culture.

The fragmented nature of the islands made it easy for Spanish colonization. The Spanish then attempted to bring political unification to the Philippine archipelago via the conquest of the various states but they were unable to subjugate the sultanates of Mindanao and the tribes and highland plutocracy of the Ifugao of Northern Luzon. The Spanish introduced elements of western civilization such as the code of law, western printing and the Gregorian calendar alongside new food resources such as maize, pineapple and chocolate from Latin America.^[56] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed from Mexico City via the Royal Audiencia of Manila, before it was administered directly from Madrid after the Mexican revolution.^[57] The Manila Galleons which linked Manila to Acapulco traveled once or twice a year between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Spanish military fought off various indigenous revolts and several external colonial challenges, especially from the British, Chinese pirates, Dutch, and Portuguese. Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools, universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced education, establishing public schooling in Spanish.^[58]

During the British occupation of 1762–1764, General William Draper lead an army of British soldiers and Indian sepoy mercenaries against the forces of then, Governor-General and Archbishop Manuel Rojo del Rio y Vieyra. The British liberated Sultan Azim ud-Din I of Sulu from imprisonment in Manila and supported the Vigan revolt of Gabriela Silang while simultaneously burning the city of Manila to the ground. Nevertheless, Spanish sovereignty in the islands was restored by the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763).^[59]

The Spanish eventually opened Philippine ports to world trade. Wealth increased and many filipinos, criollos and mestizos became rich. The numbers of Spanish and Latino settlers swelled, this secularized churches and government positions traditionally held by the peninsulares. The ideals of revolution also began to spread through the islands. Criollo insurgency resulted in the Novales mutiny, and the revolt in Cavite El Viejo in 1872 that would lead to the Philippine Revolution.^[60]

A map found on board the Na SA de Covadonga, after it was taken by Commodore Anson in 1743, showing the route of the Manila-Acapulco galleon sailing through the Philippine Islands.

An ideology of a revolution grew after colonial authorities executed three progressive secular priests, Mariano Gómez, José Burgos and Jacinto Zamora (known as Gomburza), who were accused of rebellion, in 1872.^[61] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines. The movement produced a newspaper, La Solidaridad. Rizal, who wrote the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, returned to the Philippines and established the organization La Liga Filipina which also called for reforms. He was exiled to Dapitan, where he met Josephine Bracken.^[62] He was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion.^[62]

Andrés Bonifacio, meanwhile, established the secret society called the Katipunan in 1892, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt.^[63] Bonifacio and the Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896. A faction of the Katipunan, the Magdalo of Cavite province, eventually came to challenge Bonifacio's position as the leader of the revolution. Emilio Aguinaldo took over from Bonifacio (who was executed afterwards in one of the most infamous, tragic, and contentious incidents in Philippine history) and formed the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in 1897.^[64] A ceasefire was agreed at the Treaty of Biak-na-Bato, which led to the revolutionary leaders to depart for Hong Kong, in exile, officially ending the revolution on May 17, 1897, though rebel activities continued regardless of the treaty.^[65]

The Spanish-American War began in Cuba in 1898 and reached the Philippines after the United States invaded the islands and fought Spain in the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo collaborated with the United States, returned from exile and declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898, and established the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic in Malolos, Bulacan the following year after Spain's defeat. Meanwhile, Spain ceded the islands together with Cuba, Puerto Rico and Guam, to the United States for $20 million during the Treaty of Paris. This led to the Philippine-American War, during which, Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901. The war (along with the Moro Rebellion), continued until 1913. At least 34,000 Filipinos lost their lives as a direct result of the war and at least 200,000 may have died as a result of the cholera epidemic at the war's end.^[66]^[67]^[68] After two interim governing commissions, the Philippine Insular Government was established in the July, 1902 by the Philippine Organic Act, restoring civilian government after the Philippine-American War.^[69]

Former politician, Manuel L. Quezon in his inauguration as President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines during the American period.

As a result of the 1916 Jones Law and the subsequent 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Act, the Philippines became a Commonwealth.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73] The Commonwealth was officially inaugurated in November 15, 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected as president in 1935, with the task of preparing the country for sovereignty. During his term numerous tasks regarding agrarian reform were initiated, including the colonization of Mindanao, an area considered as part of the hinterlands at the time. He also faced several challenges from leftist groups, such as the Sakdalista. Apart from this, his projects also included the establishments of a new capital and the formation of a unifying National Language.

Efforts to prepare the country for independence were hampered by the Japanese invasion during World War II. Despite an effort to defend the country in Bataan and Corregidor, the country was occupied and was turned into a controlled government by various foreign and local political dictators run by José P. Laurel. Numerous war crimes were committed during the years of the occupation, such as the plight of comfort women and the Bataan Death March. In exile, Quezon continued representing the Commonwealth in forums such as the Pacific War Council and the United Nations until his death in 1943. The islands were liberated in 1944–1945, beginning in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, where General Douglas MacArthur led the Allied Forces and the United States Military (U.S. Army, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps) and escorted Sergio Osmeña, Quezon's successor, back to the country. The liberation ended after the Battle of Manila, killing almost 100,000 people, bringing the death toll for the country to at least a million dead.^[74] On July 4, 1946: in the ruined Philippine capital; the United States granted the Philippines its independence from colonial rule due to domestic conservative interests^[75] and an aggressive campaign by the Nacionalista Party^[76] but it was still maintaining the Clark Air Base^[77] and the Subic Naval Base and even enforcing unequal economic treaties such as the Bell Trade Act.^[78]

Contemporary Period

After the World War II, the Philippines faced the plague of political instability. Since 1946, remnants of the Hukbalahap communist rebel army continued to roam the rural regions, disgruntled after the government had rejected their contribution during World War II. Attempts at reconciliation were established by former President Ramón Magsaysay.

A statue of the Virgin Mary was built on the EDSA Shrine, after the People Power Revolution.

In 1962 Carlos P. Garcia was elected president. He was followed by Diosdado Macapagal, the 9th president of the Philippines & the 1st Philippine president with royal lineage tracing back to Rajah Lakandula. The 1960s was a period of economic growth for the Philippines, which developed into one of the wealthiest in Asia. Ferdinand Marcos then became president and barred from seeking a third term, he declared martial law on September 23, 1972. Using the crises of political conflicts, the tension of the

A merit medal from the Order of Lakandula. The highest honor awarded by the Philippine Republic. The order was initiated by the Macapagal Presidential Family, descendants of the Tondo Dyansty's last king, Rajah Lakandula. The only branch of Seludung's Royal Family that has triumphed against the massacres of Majapahit, Bruneian, Spanish, British, American and Japanese Imperialists while shaping the course of Philippine History.

Cold War, a rising Communist rebellion, an Islamic insurgency and with military support from the USA as justifications; he governed by decree (Oppression), along with his wife Imelda Marcos. After being exiled, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. (Marcos' chief rival) was assassinated at the Manila International Airport (also called the Ninoy Aquino International Airport) on August 21, 1983.

After the assasination, the People Power Revolution occurred. The people gathered and protested in EDSA, instigated by the Archbishop of Manila, Jaime Cardinal Sin, who was opposed to the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos. The People Power Revolution shocked the whole world by being the first non-violent revolution caught on camera.^[79] The video footage of Nuns and children stopping war tanks using only their bodies in fervent prayer sent a powerful political message of transcendence which reverberated across the globe.^[80] Consequently, this served as an inspiration for the spread of more non-violent revolutions across the world^[79] and freeing it from the grip of the Soviet Communists and American Imperialists when the peoples oppressed by the puppet-regimes supported by the two Cold War Superpowers followed suit and threw off their own dictators in similar non-violent revolutions. Eventually this caused the end of Communist rule in Eastern Europe^[81] and the removal of US supported autocrats in Latin-America^[82]. The democratic movement eventually culminating with the fall of the Berlin Wall.^[83]

After losing the subsequent election to Corazón Aquino, the widow of Benigno Aquino and the symbol of the People Power Revolution, who became the first female president of the Philippines and the first female president in Asia; Ferdinand Marcos, a CIA supported dictator ^[84] and his allies departed to Hawaii in exile aboard American military helicopters.^[85]

The return of democracy and government reforms after the events of 1986 were hampered by an IMF induced national debt, government corruption, coup attempts, a Communist insurgency and an Islamic separatist organization. Nevertheless, US Military Bases in the Philippines (The largest ever built) were shutdown and converted to Freeport Zones. Furthermore, the economy improved during the administration of Fidel V. Ramos, who was elected in 1992.^[86] However, the economic improvements were negated at the onset of the East Asian financial crisis in 1997.

Due to his popularity among the poor and uneducated by being a movie actor, Joseph Ejercito Estrada was elected president. The 2001 EDSA Revolution however, led to his downfall when he was found guilty of fraud and plunder.^[87]

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took leadership in 2001 following the controversial EDSA 2 revolution and the impeachment of the Estrada government. She is contextually; a democratically elected Queen by being a daughter of a former Head of State, Diosdado Macapagal and by being a long lost descendant of Rajah Lakandula the last reigning King of the Tondo Dynasty through Don Juan Macapagal, an ancestor.^[88] Her legitimacy is furthermore cemented by having gained power by orchestrating a revolution.^[89] The Macapagal branch of the Tondo Royal family, survived the persecution of the ages by changing their surname from "Lakandula" to "Macapagal". This makes the EDSA 2 revolution the only revolution in modern history, to have resurrected an ancient but lost royal dynasty.^[90]

The presidency of Arroyo was marred by a handful of political difficulties. Terrorism in the south began to fester and move up north while an unruly military began plotting coup attempts in the capital, Manila. Several natural disasters also posed a challenge along with political controversies popping-up here and there. Yet, despite the bleak situation, positive instances did occur. The economy continued to grow and stabilize, the strongest in over twenty years, despite a financial crisis,^[91] ^[91]^[92] while relations with neighboring countries continued to prosper. Two democratic elections were also held at this time.

In 2007, the World Bank has declared the Philippines a "Newly industrialized country"^[93] while the prestigious Goldman Sachs Group has predicted that the Philippines will be one of the Next Eleven economies which will shape world trade.^[94] Their prophesies proved true during the onset of the Late-2000s recession when the whole world fell victim to the economic devastation wrought by Subprime Banking mess resulting in every industrialized country having a negative growth rate. Something which the Philippines defied by predicting a positive GDP growth rate during the 2009 fiscal year.^[95] However, Corazon C. Aquino, heroine of people power, died on August 2009. Immediately, plans are underway to declare her a saint.^[96]

Politics and government

Main articles: Politics of the Philippines, President of the Philippines, and Constitution of the Philippines

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the current President of the Philippines.

The Malacañang Palace is the official residence of the President of the Philippines

The Philippines has a presidential, unitary form of government (with some modification, there is one autonomous region largely free from the national government), where the President functions as both head of state and head of government and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected by popular vote to a single six-year term, during which time she or he appoints and presides over the cabinet.^[2]

The bicameral Congress is composed of a Senate, serving as the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term, and a House of Representatives, serving as the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term. They are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation.^[2]

The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices, all appointed by the Philippine President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.^[2]

There have been attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral or parliamentary government beginning in the term of Ramos up to the present administration.^[97]^[98]

Security and defense

Main articles: Armed Forces of the Philippines and Philippine National Police

The BRP Rajah Humabon (PF-11) is the current flagship, and largest warship of the Armed Forces of the Philippines

Philippine defense is handled by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, which is modeled after the United States armed forces and is composed of three branches: the Air Force, the Army, and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). Civilian security is handled by Philippine National Police under the DILG. In metropolitan areas, groups like the MMDA are in charge local issues, such as traffic.

In the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, the largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, are actively engaging the government, seeking more rights and better autonomy for their people. Militant organizations, such as the New People's Army and the Abu Sayyaf Group, have been roaming the provinces, however their presence has decreased in recent years due to successful security provided by the Philippine government.^[99]^[100]

The Philippines has been an ally of the United States since World War II.^[101] It has supported American policies during the Cold War, and has participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars as a result of the country's involvement with SEATO, a group that includes Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.^[102] After the start of the War on Terror, there has been additional support from the United States military.^[103] The country is currently working with the United States, through a visiting forces agreement, with the intention of ending the insurgency in the country.^[104]^[105] The Philippines also has a military agreement with Australia.^[106] Other important military allies include Brunei, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, the United Kingdom and Vietnam.

International relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the Philippines

The Philippine Embassy in Washington D.C., United States.

The Philippines' international relations is focused on its ideals of democracy, peace and trade with other nations, as well as the well-being of the 11 million Overseas Filipinos living outside the country. It has aligned itself with several nations around the world including its Southeast Asian and Asia-Pacific neighbors, the United States, the Middle East, the Vatican and other countries.^[107]

As a founding and active member of the United Nations, it has been elected several times into the Security Council and is an active participant in the Human Rights Council as well as in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor.^[108]^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112] Aside from the United Nations, the country is also a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) with the intention of strengthening relations with its Southeast Asian neighbors and promoting economic and cultural growth between member states.^[113] It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor on the direction, and policies of the bloc.^[114] The current relations it enjoys with other Southeast Asian states is in contrast with its relations with them before the 1970s when it was at war with Vietnam and was heavily disputing Sabah with Malaysia, although misunderstandings between these states continue to exist due to the Spratly Islands.^[115]

The Philippines values its relations with the United States, and has actively supported most of the other's policies with regards to foreign affairs^[107] As a Major non-NATO ally, the country supported the United States during the Cold War and the War on Terror. It has also committed itself to promote the American ideals of democracy. Despite this history of goodwill, controversy continues to exist between the relations of the two nations, with varying issues such as the Philippine-American War, the Bell Trade Act, the presence of U.S. military bases in Subic Bay and Clark, and the Visiting Forces Agreement.^[107] Japan is also treated as an ally due to the Official Development Assistance given to the people, although historical tensions exist due to the plight of comfort women.^[116]

Relations with Spain, Europe and Latin America remained positive due to shared interests. Despite the threat of violence (such as domestic abuse and war) on Overseas Filipino Workers, particularly on domestic workers, relations with Middle Eastern countries (including Egypt, Iran, Iraq,^[117] Libya, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) continue to be friendly as proven by the continuous employment of more than two million Overseas Filipinos living there. Recent foreign policy has been mostly about economic relations with its Southeast Asian and Asia-Pacific neighbors.^[107]

The Philippines is a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Latin Union, the Group of 24 and the Non-Aligned Movement.^[2] It is also seeking to strengthen relations with Islamic countries by campaigning for observer status in the Organization of Islamic Conference.^[118]^[119]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Philippines

Provinces and regions of the Philippines.

The Philippines is divided into three island groups: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. These are divided into 17 regions, 80 provinces, 120 cities, 1,511 municipalities and 42,008 barangays.^[120] In addition, the Section 2 of Republic Act No. 5446 asserts that the country has acquired islands from Sabah formerly (North Borneo).^[121]

Region	Designation	Regional center
Ilocos Region	Region I	San Fernando, La Union
Cagayan Valley	Region II	Tuguegarao, Cagayan
Central Luzon	Region III	San Fernando, Pampanga
CALABARZON	Region IV-A	Calamba City, Laguna
MIMAROPA	Region IV-B	Calapan, Oriental Mindoro
Bicol Region	Region V	Legazpi, Albay
Western Visayas	Region VI	Iloilo City
Central Visayas	Region VII	Cebu City
Eastern Visayas	Region VIII	Tacloban
Zamboanga Peninsula	Region IX	Pagadian, Zamboanga del Sur
Northern Mindanao	Region X	Cagayan de Oro City
Davao Region	Region XI	Davao City
SOCCSKSARGEN	Region XII	Koronadal, South Cotabato
Caraga	Region XIII	Butuan
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao	ARMM	Cotabato City
Cordillera Administrative Region	CAR	Baguio
National Capital Region	NCR	Manila

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Philippines

Mount Apo in Mindanao.

Chocolate Hills in Bohol.

The Philippines constitutes an archipelago of 7,107 islands^[9] with a total land area of approximately 300,000 square kilometres (116,000 square miles). It is located between 116° 40', and 126° 34' E. longitude and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N. latitude and borders the Philippine Sea on the east, the South China Sea on the west, and the Celebes Sea on the south. The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometres southwest and Taiwan is located directly to the north. The Moluccas and Sulawesi are located to the south-southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands.^[2]

The Philippines is divided into three island groups: Luzon (Regions I to V, NCR and CAR), Visayas (VI to VIII), and Mindanao (IX to XIII and ARMM). The port of Manila, on Luzon, is the capital city and the second largest city after Quezon City.^[2]

Mayon Volcano in Luzon.

Most of the mountainous islands were covered in tropical rainforest and are volcanic in origin. The highest mountain is Mount Apo, located in Mindanao measuring at 2,954 metres (9,692 ft) above sea level. There are many active volcanos such as the Mayon Volcano, Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano. The islands are also located within the typhoon belt of the Western Pacific, and approximately 19 typhoons strike per year.^[122]

Located on the northwestern fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines have experienced frequent seismic and volcanic activities. Around 20 earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquake was the 1990 Luzon earthquake.^[123]

The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon. Manila Bay is connected to Laguna de Bay by means of the Pasig River. Subic Bay, the Davao Gulf and the Moro Gulf are some of the important bays. Transversing the San Juanico Strait is the San Juanico Bridge that connects the islands of Samar, and Leyte.^[124]

Natural resources

Main article: Ecoregions in the Philippines

The Philippine Eagle is a bird of prey found in the rainforests of the islands.

The Philippines has abundant natural resources in areas such as agriculture, natural beauty and minerals. It has fertile lands, diverse flora and fauna, extensive coastlines and rich mineral deposits.^[125]

Endemic species include the tamaraw of Mindoro and the tarsier of Bohol. The Philippines lacks predators, with the exception of snakes, such as pythons and cobras, and birds of prey, such as the national bird, known as the Philippine eagle.^[126] Other native animals include the palm civet cat,^[127] the Mouse deer, the Visayan warty pig,^[128] and several species of bats.

Rainforests boast an array of flora, including several types of orchids and rafflesia.^[129] The narra is considered as the most important type of hardwood while banyan trees or the balete.^[130] The islands' major crops include rice, corn, sugarcane, coconut, abaca, and tobacco. Rice is the most important source of food along with corn. The coconut, mango, watermelon and other native fruits are important contributors to the nation's income.

Due to the volcanic nature of the islands, mineral deposits are abundant. This also allows the Philippines to become a powerhouse with regards to geothermal energy.^[131]^[132] A notable example of the volcanic features of the islands include the Benham Plateau to the east, a region active in tectonic subduction.^[133]

The Philippine territorial waters encompass as much as 1.67 million square kilometres, producing a unique and diverse marine life, an important part of the Coral Triangle. There are 2,400 fish species. Other marine products include corals, pearls, crabs and seaweeds.^[125]^[134] The rain forests offer prime habitat for more than 530 species of birds, some 800 species of orchids, and some 8,500 species of flowering plants.^[135]

Deforestation is acute in Southeast Asia,^[136] the second of the world's great biodiversity hot spots.^[137] The forest cover of the Philippines declined from 70% of the country's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in 1999.^[138]^[139]

Climate

Main article: Climate of the Philippines

The Philippines has a tropical climate and is usually hot and humid. The average yearly temperature is around 26.5°C (79.7°F). There are three recognized seasons: "Tag-init" or "Tag-araw" (the hot season or summer from March to May), "Tag-ulan" (the rainy season from June to November), and "Tag-lamig" (the cold season from December to February). The southwest monsoon (from May to October) is known as the "Habagat" and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon (from November to April) as the "Amihan".^[140] The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Both temperature and humidity levels reach the maximum in April and May.^[2] Manila and most of the lowland areas are hot and dusty from March to May.^[141] Even at this period, the temperatures rarely rise above 37°C and sea-level temperatures rarely fall below 27°C. Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1,000 millimetres in some of the sheltered valleys. Sitting astride the typhoon belt, most of the islands experience annual torrential rains and thunderstorms from July to October.^[142]

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Philippines

The skyline of Ortigas Center in the foreground with Makati City in the background on the left.

The Philippines is a newly industrialized country, with an economy anchored on agriculture but with substantial contributions from manufacturing, mining, remittances from overseas Filipinos and service industries such as tourism, and business process outsourcing.^[143]^[144] Goldman Sachs includes the country in its list of the "Next Eleven" economies.^[145]

The Makati City skyline

In the 1960s, the economy was regarded as the second largest in Asia, next to Japan.^{[citation needed]} However, the leadership of Ferdinand Marcos proved disastrous, by transforming the market economy into a centrally planned economy.^{[citation needed]} The country suffered severe economic recession,^[when?] only to recover in the 1990s with a program of economic liberalization.^{[citation needed]}

The Philippine Stock Exchange with the statue of martyred Filipino opposition leader during the Marcos dictatorship, Benigno S. Aquino, Jr.

The Asian Financial Crisis affected the economy to an extent, resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market, although the extent to which it was affected was not as severe as that of its Asian neighbors. This is largely due to the fiscal conservatism of the government partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund, in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth.^[86] By 2004, the economy experienced six percent growth in gross domestic product and 7.3% in 2007.^[146]

The Philippine economy is heavily reliant on remittances as a source of foreign currency, surpassing foreign direct investment. China and India have emerged as major economic competitors, siphoning away investors who would otherwise have invested their businesses, particularly telecommunication companies. Regional development is also somewhat uneven, with Luzon, and Metro Manila in particular gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions,^[147] although the government has taken steps to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country.

The Philippines is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It is also a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Colombo Plan and the G-77 and other International organization.^[148] The daily income for 45% of the population of the Philippines is less than US$ 2.^[149]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of the Philippines, Filipino people, and Overseas Filipino

Population growth of the Philippines.

Map of the dominant ethnicities of the Philippines by province.

The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. As of December 31, 1877, the country's population was recorded at 5,567,685 persons.^[150] By 2009, the Philippines has become the world's 12th most populous nation, with a population of over 92 million.^[11]^[12] In 2009, 11% of Filipinos are living abroad as migrant laborers. An estimated figure of half of the population resides on the island of Luzon. Manila, the capital city, is the eleventh most populous metropolitan area in the world. The population of Greater Manila Area is around 20 million.^[151] Life expectancy is 71.09 years, with 74.15 years for females and 68.17 years for males.^[152] Population growth rate between 1995 to 2000 was 3.21% but has decreased to an estimated 1.95% for the 2005 to 2010 period.^[153]

Ethnicity

Main article: Ethnic groups of the Philippines

Filipinos belong to several Asian ethnic groups, grouped within the Malay or Malayo-Polynesian speaking people, who speak Austronesian languages. They originated from a population of Taiwanese aborigines,^[154] that migrated to the Philippines thousands of years ago from Taiwan, and brought with them knowledge of agriculture and ocean-sailing technology. Various people of different races and nationalities have intermarried with various indigenous ethnic groups.^[155] Their descendants are known as mestizos.^[156] The official population of all types of mixed blood individuals living in the country remain unknown. The islands are composed of a multitude of different ethnic groups and cultures. These include non-tribal peoples such as the Visayan, the Tagalog, comprising about one-fifth of the country’s total population, the Ilocano, the Moro, the Kapampangan, the Bicolano, the Pangasinense, the Ibanag and the Ivatan.^[157] Indigenous peoples are also present including the Igorot, the Lumad, the Mangyan, the Badjao, and the tribes of Palawan.^[154] Negritos, such as the Aeta and the Ati, are considered the aboriginal inhabitants of the islands and are estimated to number around 300,000 people (0.3%).^[154] Migrant ethnic groups who have settled in the country from elsewhere include Chinese, Spanish, Americans, Arabs, British, Europeans, Indonesians, Japanese, Koreans, and South Asians. Chinese Filipinos number about 2 million.^[158]

There are about 11 million Filipinos outside the Philippines.^[13] Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965,^[159] the number of people in the United States having Filipino ancestry had grown substantially to 3.1 million according to the 2007 United States census.^[160] According to the US Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico.^[161] Some 2 million Filipinos work in the Middle East, with nearly a million in Saudi Arabia alone.^[162]

Cities

The figure below shows the top twenty largest cities in the Philippines.

Largest cities in the Philippines
Rank	City	Region	Population	Rank	City	Region	Population	view • talk • edit Manila Makati Pasig
1	Quezon City	National Capital	2,679,450	11	Cagayan de Oro	Region X	553,966
2	Manila	National Capital	1,660,714	12	Parañaque	National Capital	552,660
3	Caloocan	National Capital	1,378,856	13	Las Piñas	National Capital	532,330
4	Davao City	Region XI	1,363,337	14	General Santos	Region XII	529,542
5	Cebu City	Region VII	798,809	15	Makati	National Capital	510,383
6	Zamboanga City	Region IX	774,407	16	Bacolod	Region VI	499,497
7	Antipolo	Region IV-A	633,971	17	Muntinlupa	National Capital	452,493
8	Pasig	National Capital	617,301	18	San Jose del Monte	Region III	439,090
9	Taguig	National Capital	613,343	19	Marikina	National Capital	424,610
10	Valenzuela	National Capital	568,928	20	Iloilo City	Region VI	418,710
Philippines 2007 Census

Language

Native Languages (2000)^[163]
Tagalog	22 million
Cebuano	20 million
Ilokano	7.7 million
Hiligaynon	7 million
Waray-Waray	3.1 million
Kapampangan	2.9 million
Bicol Central	2.5 million
Chavacano creoles	2.5 million
Pangasinan	2.4 million
Bicol Albay	1.2 million
Maranao	1.2 million
Maguindanao	1.1 million
Kinaray-A	1.1 million
Tausug	1 million
Surigaonon	0.6 million
Masbateño	0.5 million
Aklanon	0.5 million
Ibanag	0.3 million

Main article: Languages of the Philippines

Over 180 native languages and dialects are spoken in the Philippines. They are part of the Borneo-Philippines group of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is itself a branch of the Austronesian language family.^[154]

According to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Filipino and English are the official languages. Filipino is a de facto version of Tagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila and other urban regions. Both Tagalog and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media and business. Major languages recognized in the constitution include Bicolano, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Tagalog and Waray-Waray. Spanish and Arabic are both recognized as auxiliary languages.^[154]

Other languages such as Aklanon, Boholano, Chavacano, Zamboangueño, Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Ivatan, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankana-ey, Kinaray-a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Masbatenyo, Romblomanon, Surigaonon, Tausug, Yakan and several Visayan languages are dominant in their respective provinces.^[154]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Philippines

The Basilica Minore de San Sebastián is a Catholic church that is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Philippines is one of two predominant Roman Catholic countries in Asia, the other being East Timor. It is composed of several diocese and archdiocese. More than 90% of the population are Christians. About 80% belong to the Roman Catholic Church while the remaining 10% belong to other Christian denominations, such as the Philippine Independent Church, Iglesia ni Cristo, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh Day Adventist, United Church of Christ and the Orthodox Church./>^[164]

Several Baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the San Agustín Church in Manila, the Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte, the Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Santa María) Church in Ilocos Sur, the Santo Tomás de Villanueva Church in Iloilo and the Basilica Minore del Santo Niño in Cebu.

Between 5% to 10% of the population are Muslim, most of whom live in parts of Mindanao, Palawan and the Sulu Archipelago, an area known as Bangsamoro or the Moro region.^[165]^[166] Some have migrated into urban and rural areas in different parts of the country. Most Muslim Filipinos practice Shafi'i, a form of Sunni Islam, while other tribal groups such as the Bajau, practice a form mixed with Animism.^[164]

Philippine traditional religions are still practiced by many aboriginal and tribal groups, often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Animism, Folk religion and Shamanism remain present as undercurrents of mainstream religion, through the albularyo, the babaylan and the manghihilot.^[164] Meanwhile, Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion, are dominant in Chinese communities.^[166]

Religions such as Bahá'í Faith, Hinduism, Judaism, other spiritual beliefs and those with no religion form the remaining minority.^[167]

Education

Main article: Education in the Philippines

The University of Santo Tomas, one of the Philippines' oldest universities.

Education in the Philippines is mostly Westernized, based on the American education system. Philippine DepEd reports a functional literacy rate of 84.1% for 2003.^[168] Other agencies are much more optimistic.^[169]^[170] Literacy is about equal for males and females.^[3]^[171] Spending for education composes 2.5% of the GDP.^[3] There were 42,152 elementary schools and 8,455 high schools registered with DepEd for school year 2006–2007.^[172] Classes start in June and end in March. The majority of colleges and universities follow a semester calendar from June to October and November to March. There are a number of foreign schools with study programs.^[2] The general pattern of formal education follows six stages:

Preschool
Elementary school
High school
Post-secondary education
Graduate education
Adult education

The Department of Education (DepEd), formerly (DECS), covers elementary, secondary, and non-formal education, the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) administers the post-secondary, middle-level education training and development, while the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) supervises the college as well as graduate academic programs and degrees as well as regulate standards in higher education.^[173]

Infrastructure

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in the Philippines

Jeepneys were originally made from U.S. military jeeps left over from World War II.

In spite of the mountainous terrain, approximately 14 percent of the 158,810 kilometres (98,110 miles) of roads in the Philippines are paved.^[174] Buses, jeepneys, taxis, tricycles and motorcycles are available when getting around the major cities and towns. In 2007, there are about 5.53 million registered motor vehicles and an average annual registration rate of 4.55%.^[175]

Train service is provided by the Strong Republic Transit System, which unified the three main railway networks that provide service of different areas of Metro Manila, and parts of Luzon, that includes the Manila Light Rail Transit System (LRT), the Manila Metro Rail Transit System (MRT) and the Philippine National Railways (PNR).

Philippine Airlines is the first commercial airline in Asia.

Seaports can be found throughout the islands. The busiest seaports are Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro and Zamboanga, which are parts of the 3,219 kilometre of waterways and seaports.^[3]^[174] Passenger ships and other sea vessels such as Superferry, Negros Navigation and Sulpicio Lines serves Manila, with links to various cities and towns. In 2003, the 919-kilometres Strong Republic Nautical Highway (SRNH) was established and this is an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities.^[176]

Rivers, such as the Pasig River and Marikina River, have air-conditioned commuter ferries run by the Pasig River Ferry Service, connecting their numerous tributaries in Manila, Makati City, Mandaluyong City, Pasig City and Marikina City.^[177]

There are 262 airports in the country, 75 of which have runways.^[174] The Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) is the main airport. Other important airports include the Diosdado Macapagal International Airport, Mactan-Cebu International Airport and Francisco Bangoy International Airport. Philippine Airlines, Asia's oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name and Cebu Pacific, the leading domestic airline, are the major airlines serving most domestic and international destinations.

Communications

Main article: Communications in the Philippines

The Philippines has one of the most sophisticated cellular phone industries in the world and one of the highest concentrations of users.^[178] Telecommunications are dominated by the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, which is also the largest company in the country.^[178]^[179] Globe Telecom, Smart Communications and Sun Cellular on the other hand, are three of its largest cellular service providers.

There are an estimated 41 million cellular phone users, the reason that the Philippines has been named as the "Texting Capital of the World",^[180] and the ownership rate is increasing.^[178] Text messaging has fostered a culture of quick greetings, and forwarded jokes among the Filipinos. Out of this growing number of avid texters, 5.5 million of them use their cellular phones as virtual wallets, making it a leader among developing nations in providing financial transactions over cellular networks.^[180] In 2007, The nation sent an average of 1 billion SMS messages per day.^[181]

Radio, television and internet are used frequently. There are approximately 381 AM and 628 FM stations and 250 national and 1,501 cable TV stations, as well as 14 million Internet users or 16% of the total population, being served by almost 100 Internet providers.^[3]^[182]

Culture and society

Main articles: Culture of the Philippines, Literature of the Philippines, Music of the Philippines, and Original Pilipino Music

An Ifugao (Malayo-Polynesian) sculpture.

Philippine culture is a combination of Eastern and Western cultures. The Philippines shares many aspects with other Asian nations (such as Malaysia and China) in its heritage, yet it also displays significant American influence, and Hispanic influences derived from the cultures of Spain and Mexico. These influences are evident in literature, folk music, folk dance, language, food, art and religion.^[143]

Traditional festivities known as barrio fiestas (district festivals) to commemorate the feast days of patron saints are common. One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish surnames and names among Filipinos. This peculiarity, unique among the people of Asia, came as a result of a colonial decree, the Clavería edict, for the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of the Spanish naming system on the population. A Spanish name and surname among the majority of Filipinos does not always denote Spanish ancestry.

Islamic instruments of gongs and a drum that make up the Philippine kulintang ensemble, an example of pre-Hispanic musical tradition.

The majority of street names, towns and provinces are in Spanish. Spanish architecture made somewhat of an imprint in the Philippines, but many buildings bearing that influence were demolished during World War II. The remaining influences can be seen in the country's churches, government buildings, and universities. Many Hispanic-styled houses and buildings are preserved, like the towns in Vigan among others.

The use of the English language in the Philippines is the United States' most visible legacy. It has contributed to the influence of American pop cultural trends. This is seen in Filipinos' love of fast-food, film and music. Fast food outlets are found on many street corners. American global fast food chain stalwarts have entered the market like McDonald's, those of Yum! Brands, Starbucks, and Burger King among others. However, local fast-food chains have emerged, and successfully compete against their foreign rivals including Goldilocks and most notably Jollibee the leading fast food chain in the country.^[183] Modern day Filipinos also listen and watch contemporary European and American music and film. However, Original Pilipino Music (also known as OPM) and local films are also appreciated.

Cuisine

Main article: Filipino cuisine

The Halo-halo is a dessert made of ice, milk, various fruits and ice cream.

Filipino cuisine has evolved over several centuries from its Malayo-Polynesian origins to become a mixed cuisine with many Hispanic, Chinese, American, and other Asian influences. These influences have been adapted to local ingredients and the Filipino palate to create distinctively Filipino dishes.

Dishes range from the very simple, like a meal of fried salted fish and rice, to the highly elaborate, such as the paellas and cocidos created for fiestas. Popular dishes include lechón, adobo, sinigang, kare-kare, tapa, crispy pata, pancit, lumpia, and halo-halo.

Unlike many of their Asian counterparts, Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks. They use western cutlery. However, possibly due to rice being the primary staple food and the popularity of a large number of stews or broth based main dishes in Filipino cuisine, the main pairing of utensils seen at the Filipino dining table is that of spoon and fork, not knife and fork. The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan is seen more often in less urbanized areas.^{[citation needed]}

Mythology and literature

Main articles: Philippine literature and Philippine mythology

Philippine mythology has been handed down through Philippine folk literature, which is the traditional oral literature of the Filipino people. This refers to a wide range of material due to the ethnic mix of the Philippines. Each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell. Nonetheless, Hindu and Spanish influence can be detected in many cases. Many of the myths are creation stories or stories about supernatural creatures, such as the Aswang (Vampire), the Diwata (Fairy), and Nature. The most recognized Philippine mythologies include the Ibong Adarna, Bernardo Carpio, Lam-Ang and Urduja.

In Philippine literature Francisco Balagtas the writer of Florante at Laura is recognized as one of the Philippines' preeminent writers. José Rizal who wrote Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not), and El Filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed) depicted the abuses of Spanish rule in his work and is considered a national hero for inspiring other Philippine revolutionaries to seek independence. Fernando María Guerrero is known for his book of Hispanic literatures. Modern literature, such as Dekada '70 and Bayan Ko (My Country), have also received national recognition for illustrating the martial law period of the 1970s, and the pre-colonial period. Contemporary literature has mostly been focused on humor and everyday life, such as the works of Bob Ong.

Media

Main articles: Cinema of the Philippines, Television in the Philippines, Internet in the Philippines, Social networking in the Philippines, and Philippine drama

Philippine media uses mainly Filipino (a de facto version of Tagalog) and English. Other Philippine languages, including various Visayan languages are also used in the media. Radio is currently the most accessible type of media due to the remoteness of certain rural locations and most local languages are broadcasted in this format.

The entertainment industry is vibrant with scandals and issues among celebrities, which are written in most broadsheets and tabloids.^[184] Drama and fantasy shows are anticipated in major television networks such as ABS-CBN, GMA Network and TV5, so are Latin telenovelas, Asianovelas and anime. Daytime television is dominated by game shows, variety shows, and talk shows such as Eat Bulaga, Game KNB? and Wowowee. Philippine cinema is also appreciated, but has faced competition from American and European films. Despite this, critically praised directors and actors remain active, including Mike de Leon, Lino Brocka, Judy Ann Santos, Vilma Santos and Nora Aunor (known for her role in Himala, the most critically acclaimed film in the nation).^[185]^[186]^[187]^[188]

With the Internet gaining popularity in recent years, social networking and MMORPGs, which are the most frequent internet activities and have lead a Philippine-based company known as "Level Up! Games" to emerge in the Philippine industry.^[189]^[190]

Sports and recreation

Main article: Sports in the Philippines

A sepak takraw ball made out of rattan. Also used for the national sport sipa.

A professional basketball game being played between the Purefoods Tender Juicy Giants and Barako Bull Energy Boosters.

Various sports are played in the Philippines including basketball, boxing, volleyball, badminton, billiards, football (soccer), ten-pin bowling and sipa.

Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines.^[191]^[192] In almost every corner of the cities, there is a basketball court as it is the favorite recreational activity by Filipinos.^[193]

Basketball, boxing, billiards, soccer, horse racing, chess and ten-pin bowling are the most watched sports.^[194] Philippine sports have produced several sports heroes, such as Francisco Guilledo, Flash Elorde, and Manny Pacquiao in boxing,^[193] Paulino Alcántara in football (soccer), Carlos Loyzaga, Robert Jaworski and Ramon Fernandez in basketball, Efren Reyes in billiards,^[195] Eugene Torre in chess,^[196] and Rafael Nepomuceno in bowling.^[197] Motocross, figure skating, cycling and mountaineering have become popular.

Traditional Filipino sports are popular,^[198]^[199] among the youth, primarily as children's games, such as luksung baka, patintero, piko, and tumbang preso. Sungka, while not as popular as it once was, is still viewed as a significant part of the traditional native Filipino games. Card games are popular during festivities, with some, including pusoy and tong-its, being used as a form of illegal gambling. Mahjong is played in some Filipino communities. The yo-yo a popular toy with roots in the Philippines was introduced internationally by Pedro Flores with its name from the Ilokano language.

Arnis and eskrima are Filipino martial arts.

References

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^ Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9715501354. http://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC. Retrieved 2009-05-14.
^ Harper, Douglas (Ed.). (2001). "Philippine". In Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
^ The Utrecht Faculty of Education. "The Philippines - The Philippines in earlier times - The First Inhabitants 40,000 years ago". http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/history1.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
^ Solheim II, Wilhelm G. "The Filipinos and their Languages". http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/linguistics/plc2006/papers/FullPapers/I-2_Solheim.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-27.
^ "Igorot (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Page 52, Societies in Prehispanic Philippines
^ de Morga, Antonio. (2006). History of the Philippine Islands, Volume 1 and 2. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 1426421206.
^ Kinaadman "Wisdom" (A Journal of the Southern Philippines) Historical Landmarks and Their Economic Impact - Page 40 - Volume 23 Year 2001
^ The Philippines and India – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and India and The World – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120.
^ Cembrano, Margarita R. Patterns of the Past: The Ethno Archaeology of Butuan.. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Cyprus/8446/tara.html. Retrieved August 18, 2009.
^ Philippine History by Maria Christine N. Halili. "Chapter 3: Precolonial Philippines" (Published by Rex Bookstore; Manila, Sampaloc St. Year 2004)
^ The Kingdom of Namayan and Maytime Fiesta in Sta. Ana of new Manila, Traveler On Foot self-published l journal.
^ Volume 5 of A study of the Eastern and Western Oceans (Japanese: 東西洋考) mentions that Luzon first sent tribute to Yongle Emperor in 1406.
^ Akeanon Online - Aton Guid Ra! - Aklan History Part 3 - Confederation of Madyaas
^ The Unconquered Kingdom in The official website of the Royal Hashemite Sultanate of Sulu and the Royal Hashemite Sultanate of Sabah
^ Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. pp. 171. ISBN 9814155675.
^ Background Note: Brunei Darussalam, U.S. State Department.
^ Mangyan Heritage Center
^ 明史
^ "The Laguna Copperplate Inscription". 2006-07-14. http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/lcieng.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
^ Kinaadman (Volume 23, Year 2001 -Xavier University Press) Page 34.
^ Scott, William Henry, Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1984. Page 59
^ Santos, Hector. "The Butuan Silver Strip." A Philippine Leaf. (accessed on August 9, 2007)
^ Hector Santos (August 28, 2009). "The Butuan Silver Strip Deciphered". A Philippine leaf. http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/mystery/silver2.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
^ Jovito S. Abellana, "Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960)
^ Maragtas by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro
^ 100 Events That Shaped The Philippines (Adarna Book Services Inc. 1999 Published by National Centennial Commission) Page 72 "The Founding of the Sulu Sultanate"
^ "The Maguindanao Sultanate", Moro National Liberation Front web site. "The Political and Religious History of the Bangsamoro People, condensed from the book Muslims in the Philippines by Dr. C. A. Majul." Retrieved January 9, 2008.
^ Scott, William Henry, Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1984
^ Pusat Sejarah Brunei. Accessed February 07, 2009.
^ Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571-1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 [1990]
^ Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300-1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author.
^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 22
^

Philippines

Contents

Etymology

History

Early History

Classical Epoch

Colonial Era

Contemporary Period

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See also

References