Particle Physics

The nucleus of an atom is held together by the strong force, to which both protons and neutrons contribute. The problem is that protons also contribute to the electromagnetic force, which repulses the protons from each other. The strong force has a much smaller range than the electromagnetic force, so in large atoms, protons only receive the attractive strong force from the protons around it while receiving the repulsive electromagnetic force from all of the protons in the nucleus. This is why large atoms tend to be unstable, and where neutrons come in. Neutrons add to the attractive strong force while having no charge that would add to the repulsive electromagnetic force. Without neutrons, the larger atoms could not stay together, their nuclei would be destroyed.

All of them. They all have valence electrons, of ns2, np2

Please note that every property of an element depends on protons so one property is often hard to sort out from another since each property has its own trends in relation to the number of protons (atomic number).

The first property that indicates the number of protons is a nanoscopic one, atomic width.

A property that can indicate the relative number of protons is density. That is chemical density not structural density. Air voids in a solid can make the density seem smaller. Most solids (that is, true solids devoid of air gaps and porosity) are heavier than water.

So if you wanted to find density differences in known solids (and reative atomic numbers) you would hit the object with x-rays and record the relative amounts that came through to the exposure film.

If you have access to a Scanning Electron Microscope using primarily the back scatter contrast method can give you an image depicting relative differences in density.

Remember though it must be a true solid. Many elements have isotopes which essentially are more dense atoms withe the same atomic number. These elements are still relatively close to the non-isotopic element since there is no absolute way to.

Sodium-24 would be formed if magnesium-24 is bombarded with a neutron and then ejects a proton. The neutron is absorbed to form magnesium-25, which then decays by emitting a proton to become sodium-24.

Electrons are produced by various processes, including photoelectric effect, thermal emission, field emission, and radioactive decay. In materials, electrons can also be generated by chemical reactions or through the application of electric fields.

Tellurium (Te) has six valence electrons.

Neutron radiation is as dangerous as any other ionizing radiation, if not more dangerous,as by some sources, it can be as many as ten times more dangerous as other ionizing radiation.

It is not directly ionizing radiation, since neutrons do not hold electric charge, but they interact (collide) with nuclei in it's path, creating isotopes, most of the time non-sable, radioactive isotopes. That is why neutron radiation induces a secondary radiation in the material it passes through.

The penetration of neutron flux is rather strong, and is not affected by the shield density, as is the case with gamma radiation, but rather by a material rich with Hydrogen (deuterium) atoms, since H atoms contain one single proton/neutron, and the collision physics slow down the neutrons in this matter most efficiently. Therefore, heavy water, plexiglass, plastics and similar materials are used as an effective shield in neutron radiation protection.

Chlorine-35, the most common isotope at 75%.

Ions are formed when atoms lose electrons, resulting in a positively charged cation. This process occurs when an atom becomes more stable by achieving a full outer electron shell through electron loss.

The proton has much more mass than the electron, by a factor of 1836 times, a ratio called "mu". Recent astronomical research suggests mu may have changed by 20 parts per million in the last 12 billion years, but I plan to wait at least a billion years for confirmation!

The Standard Model of Particle Physics gives a good list of particles and their masses.

The electric charge of a proton is +1 elementary charge unit. That means its charge is 1.6021764e-19 Coulombs.

protons --- rel. mass 1 amu, rel. charge +1, location in the nucleus.

neutrons --- rel. mass 1 amu, rel. charge 0, location in the nucleus.

electrons --- rel. mass 0 amu, rel. charge -1, location outside the nucleus.

However, an event yesterday proved to me that at least some kinds do. My mini-fridge was broken so I decided to take it apart and look at all the pieces. I took off the plastic switch that the door hits to trigger the light to go on and off. On the backside of this switch, there were two short metal prongs that moderately resembled a plug. Thinking that plastic does not conduct electricity, I stuck it in the socket to see what would happen. There was a bang and the switch flew away from the wall, with both of its prongs melted halfway off! One revealed a gold color on it's inside and the other a copper color. Then I realized that my whole left arm felt buzzy, and it did so for a while. So yes, I got shocked through plastic!

A positron is the antimatter counterpart to an electron, with the same mass but opposite charge. When a positron collides with an electron, they annihilate each other, producing energy in the form of gamma rays. Positrons are commonly used in medical imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET).

During the particle era, quarks were confined within particles such as protons and neutrons. As the universe cooled and expanded, quarks combined to form these stable hadrons. Today, quarks are always found bound within larger particles due to a property known as color confinement.

Magnesium is the period 3 alkaline earth metal. Thus, its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. The shorthand version of this is [Ne] 3s2 since neon's electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6.

The element cobalt has 27 protons. Since the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in your particular question is 59, the answer to what has 27 protons and 32 neutrons is the particular isotope of cobalt labeled 59Co. This is cobalt's only stable isotope.

Three subatomic particles found in atoms besides protons, neutrons, and electrons are up quarks, down quarks, and gluons. Up quarks and down quarks are the fundamental particles that make up the protons and neutrons found in atomic nuclei. Gluons are the exchange particles that transfer the information regarding the strong nuclear force between the quarks.

Particles in astrophysics communicate through the fundamental forces of nature such as gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, and strong nuclear force. These forces govern the interactions and behaviors of particles on cosmic scales, allowing them to transfer energy, momentum, and information throughout the universe. Gravity, for example, plays a key role in orchestrating the movements of celestial bodies, while electromagnetism facilitates the transmission of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Pd, or palladium, is the group 10, period 5 transition metal. Thus, its electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10. The shorthand version of this is [Kr] 4d10, since krypton's electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6.

The negative ionic radius is larger than the neutral atomic radius

Electric energy is produced by the movement of electrons. When electrons flow through a conductor, such as a wire, they create an electric current which can be harnessed to power electrical devices. This movement of electrons is the basis for generating electricity in many everyday applications.

The atomic number of a subatomic particle is determined by the number of protons it has. Protons have a positive charge and are located in the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is equivalent to its atomic number.