The Difference Between

Four Fundamental Orientations (Perspectives)

for Learning Theories

1. Behaviorist Orientation

Behaviorism was founded by John B. Watson in the early part of the 20th Century. This was the earliest formulation of a coherent theory of learning, at least in modern Western society. A variety of perspectives emerged over the next few decades, including the work of Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, Hull, Skinner, and others.

From the behaviorist perspective, three assumptions are held to be true. First, the focus was on observable behavior rather than on internal cognitive processes. If learning has occurred, then some sort of observable external behavior is apparent. Second, the environment is the shaper of learning and behavior, not individual characteristics. Third, principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process.

The behaviorist orientation is fundamental to much current educational practice, including adult education. Skinner believed the ultimate goal of education was to train individuals to behaviors which would ensure their personal survival, as well as the survival of cultures and the species. The teacher's role, in this perspective, is to provide an environment that elicits the desired behaviors and extinguishes the undesirable ones.

Educational practices which have these notions at their core include systematic design of instruction, behavioral and performance objectives, programmed instruction, competency-based instruction, and instructor accountability. Training for skills and vocations is particularly heavily saturated with learning and being reinforced for "correct responses and behaviors."

2. Cognitive Orientation

Cognitive theories of learning are concerned with processes which occur inside the brain and nervous system as a person learns. They share the perspective that people actively process information and learning takes place through the efforts of the learner. Internal mental processes include inputing, organizing, storing, retrieving, and finding relationships between information. New information is linked to old knowledge, schema and scripts.

All the various cognitive approaches emphasise how information is processed. There were some very early efforts to organize cognitive theories in the late 1900's, but these were usurped by the behaviorist work being done at that time. It was not until the years after World War II that cognitive theories began to find their strength.

The Gestalt psychologistswere the first to challenge the behaviorist point of view. They criticized behaviorism for its reductionistic tendencies, and felt it was too dependent on external behaviors to explain learning. By the mid twentieth century, Gestalt theories and the work of Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, and Lewin provided competition to behaviorism as the only accepted theory of learning.

Gestalt learning theories emphasized perception, insight, and meaning as the key elements of learning. The individual was seen as a perceptual organism, who organized, interpreted, and gave meaning to the events that impinged upon his consciousness. Making sense of events and phenomena was a driving concept. The learner makes sense of things by thinking about them. For Gestaltists, the individuality of the learner and his internal mental processes is paramount.

Jean Piaget was influenced by both the behaviorist and the Gestalt schools, and proposed that one's internal cognitive structures change as a result of developmental changes in the nervous system and as a result of being exposed to variety of experiences and the environments that contain them.

Contemporary research into cognitive learning theory focuses on information procession, memory, metacognition, theories of transfer, computer simulations, artificial intelligence, mathematical learning models, Ausubel, Bruner, and Gagne are all classified as contemporary cognitive theorists. Each of these theorists emphasized different aspects of cognitive functioning of the individual and group contexts.

Cognitive theories are quite diverse, but all are unified by the importance of the learner's internal mental processes. These three pioneering cognitive theorists, Bruner, Ausubel and Gagné also shared common ideas. They did not emphasize a developmental perspective, as much as Piaget did. These three theorists were ontemporaries, doing much of their work in the 1960's and 1970's. Even then, each was recognized as an authority in his field.

Although Ausubel, Bruner and Gagné each took different perspectives on learning, each has made significant contributions to the overall model of human learning. Ausubel considered the impact of prior learning and originated the tool called the "advanced organizer". The behaviourists did not consider the importance of prior learning.

Bruner's work on categorisation and concept formation provided models of how the learner derives information from the environment. Gagné looked at the events of learning and instruction as a series of phases, using the cognitive steps of coding, storing, retrieving and transferring information.

Humanist Orientation

Humanistic theories shift the emphasis to the potential for individual growth in the learner. They bring the affective functioning of the human into the arena of learning.

Freud's psychoanalytic approach to behavior was a powerful influence on the humanistic learning theorists. Many of Freud's concepts, such as the subconscious mind, anxiety, repression, defense mechanisms, drives, and transference found their way into the humanistic learning theories.

The humanists rejected the notions of behaviorism that the environment determines learning. They favored the notion that human beings can control their own destiny, and that humans are inherently good and desire a better world for themselves and others. Behavior is a consequence of choice; people are active agents in their own learning and lives, not helpless respondents to forces that act upon them. Motivation, choice, and responsibility are influences of learning. Life's experiences are the central arena for learning.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are the two theorists who have contributed most to this perspective.

Social Learning Orientation

The focus of social learning theories is interactions between people as the primary mechanism of learning. Learning is based on observation of others in a social setting. Early social learning theories in the 1940's drew heavily from behaviorism, suggesting that imitative responses, when reinforced, let to the observed learning and behavioral changes.

Later, in the 1960's the work of Bandura broke away from the behaviorist views. He was the first to separate observation of another's behavior from the act of imitation. He postulated that an observer can learn by observing without having to imitate what is being learned.

Four processes form the cornerstones of observational learning theory. These are attention, retention (memory), behavioral rehearsal, and motivation. All four processes contribute to learning by observation.

Two other important proponents of social learning theory are Vygotsky and John Seely Brown.

Many useful concepts emerge from the social learning orientation, including motivational strategies, locus of control, social role acquisition, and the importance of interaction of learner with environment and other learners.

Short answer:

To explain something with something similar is an analogy.

To mean something totally different than what you are actually saying is an idiom.

Longer and more explaining answer: To explain one thing by using something different yet similar as a maybe easier "example" is an analogy.

We can crudely explain electricity and a light-switch like this:

"Electricity is like water. When you turn on the water, it starts flowing.

When you turn on a light-switch, electricity starts flowing"

An idiom however is very different. It is a common saying that does not mean what it actually say.

Examples of this is:

1 A piece of cake.... ---> We say this to indicate that something is easy.

2 To wake up with the wrong foot.... ---> Person being grumphy.

In my opinion, an Idiom is also a kind of analogy but only because we are taught the added meaning of the wording.

An example here is that foreigners of a country do not easily understand the local idiomatic expressions. This because idiomatic expressions are mostly local to that country alone. A huge exception is all the English speaking countries who share a lot of idiomatic expressions.

Foreigners need to be taught the expressions in order to understand their meaning.

An analogy is something that normally would works universally with no barrier of language or country.

There are however other barriers when using analogies.

The key here is knowledge.

A good analogy will explain a difficult subject in easy terms using only phenomenons or science the listener can relate to.

Analogies can be made up on the go...

: She was as clever as a duck drowning.

---> Not very clever of a duck to drown.. Ergo, She was not the brightest one.

: The paint on that house is as good as the paint on my scrapped car.

---> We can count on that the car didn't look very good. Ergo, The paint on the house was not much good either.

Idioms can not be "made up on the go" normally.

It is only when many people recognise a sentence or a particular wording as having a different meaning that it becomes an idiomatic expression.

There are some idiomatic expressions that are also an analogy. Not that many though.

It might seem that Cognitive Styles are the way in which we comprehend or understand a problem or situation. While Learning Styles are the way that we learn, or process information.

"Cognitive style or "thinking style" is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information, or their preferred approach to using such information to solve problems." Wikipedia

Learning Styles is a term that is virtually synonymous to this but is used much more widely, most often in the fields of education and training. Whereas cognitive psychology tries to describe differences in styles of thinking in an objective way in order to produce psychological definitions and data, those who would likely choose to speak of learning styles instead of thinking styles or cognitive styles would probably be more interested in the practical implications of style differences.
In the stile antico, the text followed the music, whereas in the stile moderno, music followed the text.

Reflexive pronouns 'reflect' back on the subject like a mirror. The reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Example sentences:

• I gave myself plenty of time to get to work.
• You should let yourself into the house.
• Jim bought himself a shirt.
• Jill read to herself.
• The dog scratched itself.
• We treated ourselves to pizza.
• You can make yourselves at home.
• The children are able to dress themselves.

Intensive pronouns are the same words used to smphasize the subject of the sentence. Intensive pronouns usually appear right near the subject of the sentence.

• I myself am sick of the heat.
• You yourself are a good friend.
• The president himself appeared at the rally.
• The actress herself wrote those lines.
• The cat itself caught the mouse.
• We ourselves made the meal.
• You yourselves can win this game.
• The troops themselves helped the people escape the burning building.