barley

(bär'lē)

1. A grass in the genus Hordeum, native to temperate regions, having flowers in terminal, often long-awned spikes.
2. The grain of H. vulgare or its varieties, used for livestock feed, malt production, and cereal.

[Middle English barli, from Old English bærlic.]

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barley

A plant probably originally from the mountainous regions of Ethiopia and Southeast Asia. Barley is not used very much for human consumption in western countries. In Asia, northern Africa and the Middle East, it is used as a flour or as grains to make porridge. In industrialized countries, barley is mainly used as cattle feed, in bread making, brewing (beer) and distilling (whiskey). The barley grain is oval-shaped and a milky-white color; it can also be black or purple. It must have its outer husk removed to be edible. 

Hulled barley is barley that has simply had its outer husk removed, keeping virtually all of its bran. This is the most nourishing grain, as it has lost very few nutrients.

Scotch or pot barley has undergone three processes of polishing by abrasion. The grain loses various nutrients, especially vitamins and minerals, as well as virtually all of its bran.

Pearl barley has been subjected to five or six abrasions and then standardized. The grain loses its germ as well as a certain amount of vitamins, minerals, fiber, fat and protein.

Barley flakes are produced and used in the same way as rolled oats.

Barley flour can be more or less refined. Whole grain barley flour has a nutty flavor. It is darker than whole-grain wheat flour.

Some varieties of barley are the primary material for making malt, which is mostly used to make beer and whiskey. To obtain malt, the barley grains are sprouted, dried, roasted, then ground. The longer the malt is roasted, the darker the resulting beer will be.

Serving Ideas

Barley is often added to soups and stews. It is used in the same way as other cereals and grains. It is cooked as is or at the same time as rice (in the case of pearl barley) or is added to pâtés, croquettes, puddings and desserts. The slightly rubbery texture of barley adds an unusual touch to mixed salads. Barley can be used in the manufacture of miso (p. 459).

Barley flour thickens soups and sauces; it adds a slightly sweet taste to foods. It is used in particular in cookies, bread, crepes and cakes. It contains no gluten, so it must be combined with wheat flour in order for it to rise.

When roasted and ground, barley provides the malt that is used as a coffee substitute and is also used to enrich certain foods. It is made into malt syrup, which flavors milkshakes and some industrially made cakes. Malted barley cereals are also available.

Cooking

Hulled barley cooks in about 1 hr over a low heat; use 3-4 cups (750 ml-1 l) of liquid for 1 cup (250 ml) of grains. It is best to soak barley for several hours before cooking (use the same liquid to cook the barley), in the case of hulled barley and Scotch barley only. If desired, drain the barley, then roast it before cooking. Pearl barley requires about 30 min cooking time and does not need to be soaked.

Nutritional Information

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For more information on barley, visit Britannica.com.

A cereal grass plant whose seeds are useful to humans. It is grown in nearly all cultivated areas of the temperate parts of the world, and is an important crop in Europe, North and South America, North Africa, much of Asia, and Australia. Barley is the most dependable cereal crop where drought, summer frost, and alkali soils are encountered. In the United States, barley is grown to some extent in 49 states, with the most important production areas in North Dakota, Montana, and California. Principal uses of barley grain are as livestock feed, for the production of barley malt, and as human food. It is also used in some areas for hay and silage.

Taxonomically barley belongs to the family Gramineae, subfamily Festucoideae, tribe Hordeae, and genus Hordeum. Most of the modern cultivated barleys are H. vulgare (six-rowed) or H. distichum. (two-rowed; see illustration). All cultivated barleys are annuals and are naturally self-pollinated. In the cultivated varieties, a wide diversity of morphological, physiological, and anatomical types are known. There are spring, facultative, and winter growth habits; hulled and naked grain; awned, awnless, and hooded lemmas; black, purple, and white kernels; and also a wide range of plant heights, spike densities, and resistances to a wide range of diseases and insects. There are in excess of 150 cultivars presently commercially grown in the United States and Canada alone, and many additional cultivars are grown in other parts of the world. New and improved varieties produced by barley breeders are constantly replacing older varieties. Several barley collections are being maintained in different countries as germplasm sources for breeding and research. These include both collections made by direct exploration in many barley-growing areas of the world and lines from barley-breeding programs. Among the largest of these collections is one maintained by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which includes more than 17,000 individual strains. See also Cyperales.

Barley spikes: (a) six-rowed Hordeum vulgare; (b) two-rowed H. distichum (USDA).

Grain of Hordeum vulgare, one of the hardiest of the cereals; mainly used for brewing beer. The whole grain with only the outer husk removed (pot, Scotch, or hulled barley) requires several hours' cooking; the commercial product is usually pearl barley where most of the husk and germ is removed. Barley flour is ground pearl barley; barley flakes are the flattened grain. A 150-g portion of cooked pearl barley (50 g dry cereal) is a source of niacin, vitamin B₆, folate, zinc, copper, and iron; provides 9 g of dietary fibre; supplies 180 kcal (750 kJ).

This hardy grain dates back to the Stone Age and has been used throughout the eons in dishes ranging from cereals to breads to soups (such as the famous scotch broth). Most of the barley grown in the Western world is used either for animal fodder or, when malted, to make beer and whiskey. Hulled (also called whole-grain) barley has only the outer husk removed and is the most nutritious form of the grain. Scotch barley is husked and coarsely ground. Barley grits are hulled barley grains that have been cracked into medium-coarse pieces. Hulled and Scotch barley and barley grits are generally found in natural food stores. Pearl barley has also had the bran removed and has been steamed and polished. It comes in three sizes-coarse, medium and fine-and is good in soups and stews. When combined with water and lemon, pearl barley is used to make barley water, an old-fashioned restorative for invalids. Barley flour or barley meal is ground from pearl barley and must be combined with a gluten-containing flour for use in yeast breads.

Barley is recognized as one of the very first crops to be domesticated for human consumption. It remains one of the major cereal crops grown in the world: barley is grown on every continent on which crops are grown. It is well adapted to diverse environmental conditions and thus it is produced across a broader geographic distribution than most other cereals. Relative to other cereal crops, barley ranks fourth in total grain production. The grain of barley enters the human food chain via distinctly different routes. First, barley is used as an animal feed and therefore makes an essential contribution to the human diet indirectly through meat production. Second, barley serves as a substrate for the production of alcoholic beverages, in particular beer. Third, a minor amount of barley is used to produce a diverse range of foodstuffs eaten by humans.

The Biology of the Barley Plant

The scientific name of barley is Hordeum vulgare L. Barley is a flowering plant belonging to the family Poaceae (the grasses). In addition to barley, the grass family includes the crops most important to human existence, including rice, wheat, and maize, and other species such as sorghum, oats, rye, millet, and sugarcane. In European contexts, barley grain is often referred to as "corn." The genus Hordeum includes approximately thirty species that are indigenous to at least four continents. Barley is the only domesticated species to have emerged from the genus Hordeum, in contrast to other crop genera such as Triticum (the wheats) and Phaseolus (the dry beans), which each contain several domesticated species. The other members of the genus Hordeum exist as wild plants.

Growth and development. The life cycle of the barley plant first begins with seed germination underground. The first visible sign of germination is root emergence, followed by the emergence of the cylindrically shaped coleoptile, which is the first structure to appear above ground. Interestingly, most above-ground tissues of the barley plant initially develop from the crown, a structure located below ground. The first leaf grows upward within the cylinder of the coleoptile, and emerges above the soil. This and other leaves do not expand along their entire length; rather the outer section (the blade) does so, while the base (the sheath) remains formed in a hollow cylinder. New leaves emerge in succession up through the sheaths of the older leaves.

The barley plant is not restricted to the development of one main stem, as observed in maize. Rather, like most other small-grain cereals such as wheat and rice, barley produces several additional secondary stems termed tillers that emerge up from the crown beginning a few weeks after the emergence of the main stem. The number of tillers produced varies depending upon the barley genotype and the environment. For instance, under highly fertile conditions, plants will produce more tillers than if nutrient starved.

Reproduction. Barley varieties are classified as spring or winter types, depending on whether they need a cold treatment, ranging from two to several weeks before making the transition to the reproductive phase of growth. When barley switches to its reproductive phase, the true stems of some of the tillers, called culms, elongate upward. The flowering structure, known variously as the spike, ear, or head, is borne upward, ultimately emerging from the "boot," which is the sheath of the uppermost leaf on the culm (the flag leaf). The height of a barley plant when the spike has emerged varies greatly, but averages approximately eighty centimeters. The spike consists of a large number of individual flowers called florets, which are present in individual spikelets that are attached to a central stemlike structure called the rachis. Spikelets are attached in groups of three on opposite sides of the rachis. The total number of spikelets on a spike varies, but averages approximately sixty. The awns are a notable feature of the spike. They are hairlike extensions that emerge upward from the lemma, one of two thin sheets of cells that surround the floret (the other is the palea). Awn length varies considerably among barley varieties.

Barley is also classified based upon the fertility of the florets on the spike. In six-rowed barleys, all of the florets are fertile, leading to six vertical rows of seeds on the spike. In contrast, in two-rowed types only the central floret of the three at each node is fertile, and thus just two rows of seeds develop on opposite sides of the rachis. The fertile florets consist of both male and female reproductive structures, and fertilization occurs as the spikes are emerging from the boot. Barley is thus predominantly self-pollinated. Between twenty-five and sixty seeds per spike are produced, and for spring barley the seed matures three to five months after planting.

Characteristics of the barley grain. Barley seeds are approximately eight millimeters in length and weigh approximately fifty milligrams when mature, though there is a considerable range in these values between varieties. In most cases, the harvested barley grain includes the seed, a small structure called the rachilla, and both the palea and lemma, all of which adhere firmly to the seed. Barley grain in which these structures remain attached is referred to as covered barley, with the palea and lemma, collectively termed the hull. However, barleys in which the palea and lemma do not adhere to the seed are also well known. These hulless barleys share harvesting features similar to wheat, because when harvested the seed is cleanly separated from all other components of the spike.

The barley seed consists of the embryo, a series of outer layers of cells called the pericarp, and the endosperm. The endosperm contains different nutrients that the embryo draws upon as it grows into a plant. The principal compound found in the endosperm is starch, which represents about two-thirds of the mass of the seed. This starch serves as an energy source for the seedling. Another significant carbohydrate, the -glucans, are components of the endosperm cell walls. The second largest component of the barley endosperm is protein. The amount of protein present is generally inversely proportional to the amount of starch. This protein provides a source of amino acids that can be used for protein synthesis by the seedling. The amount of protein present in a seed is positively correlated with the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied when the parent plant is being grown. Additionally, the barley grain contains a large variety of other compounds present in minor amounts, including mineral nutrients and different organic compounds, including various vitamins.

The History of Barley Use

The progenitor of cultivated barley is Hordeum vulgare subspecies spontaneum, or wild barley. Wild barley is still widely distributed in a large geographic region ranging west from Israel, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt, eastward to Pakistan, India, and into western China. It is particularly prevalent in the Fertile Crescent region of the Near and Middle East. Biological evidence for wild barley as a progenitor of cultivated barley is suggested by the fact that they both have the same base chromosome number (seven), and can be easily crossed to produce fertile offspring. Wild barley is two-rowed, and thus the first domesticated barley was two-rowed. Six-rowed types and hulless barley emerged not long afterward from the domesticated two-rowed types, due to a few chance mutations. Several traits have been selected in barley compared to wild barley, which facilitate harvest, storage, and utilization. The most important of these are nonshattering spikes where the seeds adhere to the rachis and allow easy harvesting, increased straw strength, larger seeds, and reduced grain dormancy.

Along with wheat, barley was one of the first crops to be domesticated by humans and thus it played an important role in the emergence of agriculture in the Old World. There is rich evidence of barley in the archaeological record from numerous sites throughout the Near and Middle East, supporting the notion that it was a common and important crop in ancient times. It is likely that barley was already domesticated and being cultivated as early as ten thousand years ago, though wild barley was likely being harvested as a food long before this. Further, early written records from various cultures bear frequent mention of barley, as does the Bible, reinforcing the fact that barley was an important crop. Indeed, barley remained an important human food crop for many millennia, but it was gradually supplanted by wheat. The rapid spread of agriculture from the Near East into Europe and Asia led to the broad dissemination of barley and its cultivation. In more recent history, barley was brought to the New World as far back as the explorations of Columbus. Barley was introduced to the eastern United States early in the seventeenth century, and the west coast of the Americas in the eighteenth century.

Barley Production

Barley is grown on nearly sixty million hectares of land worldwide, resulting in the production of approximately 140 million metric tons of grain. The top ten barley producing countries include Russia, Germany, Canada, Ukraine, France, Australia, the United Kingdom, Turkey, United States, and Denmark. Barley producers select the appropriate varieties to be grown and crop management schemes to produce grain well suited to a particular end use. Specific producer considerations vary widely, but include the choice of variety to plant, the timing of planting and grain harvesting, and agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. In the Northern Hemisphere, in regions where winters are too severe to allow winter barleys to survive overwintering, spring barleys are planted, usually in April or May. In warmer regions where winter barleys can overwinter, planting is done in September or November.

Given that the producer obtains only a small profit margin for barley produced, additional agricultural inputs are minimized. For instance, nitrogen fertilization is managed to maximize yield without compromising end-use quality. Barley is also subject to damage by a range of diseases, including powdery mildew, stem and leaf rust, smuts, leaf blotches, viral diseases, and head blights. Thus these diseases are managed by a combination of strategies including the use of disease-resistant varieties, application of fungicides, tillage practices, timing of crop planting, and crop rotation.

When the barley crop is mature, harvesting is accomplished either by direct combining or by first swathing, which entails cutting the culms and allowing the grain to dry in the field, and then harvesting. Technology for harvesting ranges from a simple sickle in developing countries to sophisticated mechanical combines that cut the culms above the soil, move the harvested plants between rollers to dislodge seeds, and pass this over mesh screens, allowing the grain to fall into a collection bin and the chaff to blow back out to the ground. Once the grain is harvested, it may either be stored in bins on the farm, or delivered to a local grain elevator where it is purchased from the producer. The price paid for barley grain depends on its intended end use. After purchasing the grain, the elevator cleans, dries, and stores it, and ultimately resells the grain to the various businesses that use barley (feed, food, and malt industries).

Barley Consumption

Animal feed. The principal use of barley grain is as feed for poultry, swine, sheep, and cattle. Worldwide, 60 percent or more of the barley that is produced is used for animal feed. The particular barley varieties used as animal feed are sometimes specially developed "feed barleys" with attributes such as high protein that are geared specifically toward this end use. Sheep can be fed whole barley; however, before barley is fed to other animals it is ground using a hammer mill or rolling mill, or may be flaked with steam-heated rollers. Thus, the final feed product may be whole, ground, flaked, or pelleted barley. Since the phosphorus in barley is generally more readily absorbed by animals than it is from other feed grains, the use of barley as animal feed tends to result in less potential environmental phosphorus contamination from the animal waste runoff. While barley grain is the principal part of the plant used as animal feed, in some instances barley plants themselves may be used as a forage hay for animals.

Human consumption of barley. Less than one-half of the barley produced throughout the world is used for the preparation and production of products directly consumed by humans. Only a minor amount of barley is actually used in the production of foods for human consumption, though the range of uses for barley within this context are diverse. In some regions of the world, barley is grown for human consumption where other grains do not grow well. When consumed as grain, hulless barley is generally used because the absence of the hull makes the product more palatable and easier to process. Barley can be pearled, which removes the outer layers of the seed and the embryo, followed by processing to produce small rounded pieces of the endosperm. Covered barley can also be dehulled, milled, and polished to remove the bran layers, to produce a ricelike product. Pearled and polished barley are used in porridges and soups and as rice substitutes. Other food uses include barley flakes, flour for baking purposes (either alone or in mixtures with wheat flour) to produce breads and crackers, grits, breakfast cereals, pilaf, noodles, and baby foods. Lastly, some barley is used for the production of distilled spirits such as whiskey, vodka, and gin, and for making vinegar and malted beverages.

Beer: the main use of barley for human consumption. The truly unique feature of barley that sets it apart from other small-grain cereals such as wheat is that the vast majority of barley that humans consume is not in the form of solid food derivatives, but rather in the form of a single product, the alcoholic beverage beer. The production of beerlike alcoholic beverages dates back several thousand years, and beer may be the oldest fermented beverage consumed by humans. Many barley varieties are developed specifically to possess the chemical and biochemical properties desirable for this purpose; such barleys are called malting barleys. In contrast to feed barley, malting barley has a high starch content. Because of the greater value of the end product of malting barley compared to feed barley, malting barley brings the producer more money. However, barley must meet stringent specifications of the malting and brewing industries before it will be used for this purpose. Both two-rowed and sixrowed barley are used to make beer, with six-rowed types preferred in the United States and two-rowed varieties preferred elsewhere. Beer production is divided into two processes, barley malting and brewing, which are undertaken by independent industries.

The beer-making process. Beer production requires just four ingredients: barley, water, hops, and yeast. Barley provides sugars and amino acids for yeast growth, and the yeast converts the sugars to ethyl alcohol in a process called fermentation. Before barley is used to make beer, it is converted to "malt" to render it a better substrate for brewing. Malting is essentially a process of truncated seed germination. When grain enters a malt house, it is first steeped in water for two to three days. After steeping, the barley is transferred to germination beds for three to four days. Here the grain begins to produce enzymes capable of degrading the starch, protein, and the cell walls of the endosperm, and degradation of protein and cell walls proceeds. The barley grains are then subjected to heat that kills the growing seedling and dries the remnant grain, but leaves intact the components of the endosperm as well as the enzymes capable of degrading them. The product that emerges is malt. Major malt producing countries include the United States, Germany, and France, while major importers of malt include Japan, Germany, and Brazil.

Malt is used by breweries for beer production. The malt is first milled and mixed with water in a process called mashing. This mash is allowed to rest at temperatures that encourage degradation of starch from the endosperm into sugars, by the enzymes present in the malt. The mash is then transferred to a container with a sieve on the bottom, called a lauter tun. Here the liquid fraction of the mash, called wort, is separated from the residual solids by filtration. Traditionally, covered barley is used for beer production because the hulls of the barley malt settle in the lauter tun and participate in filtering out residual solids. The resultant wort contains the soluble components derived from the malt, such as sugars and amino acids liberated by enzyme action. Hop plant flowers (or a derivative of them) are added to the wort and boiled. The hop oils add certain bitter flavors to the beer and protect it from bacterial contamination. The wort is then cooled, transferred to a fermentation vessel, and inoculated with yeast. The yeast use the sugars and amino acids from the malt to grow, and as it grows the metabolism of the sugar maltose leads to the production of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide as by-products of the fermentation process. After fermentation, the yeast and other solids are allowed to settle out. This is followed by an aging period, carbonation, and final packaging to produce the finished beer. Thus, the role of barley grain in beer production is similar to its role in the barley life cycle: to provide nutrients for growth. However, in beer production the benefactor of the nutrients is the yeast and not the growing seedling.

Worldwide, well over one billion hectoliters of beer are produced annually, from approximately sixty million metric tons of barley. It takes approximately fifty grams of malt to produce a 375-milliliter bottle of beer, though this amount can be less depending on the type of beer and whether adjuncts (nonbarley sources of sugars, often rice or corn) are used. The largest beer producing countries include the United States, China, Germany, Brazil, Japan, the United Kingdom, and Mexico.

Traditions. The principal barley product consumed by humans, beer is produced and drunk in large quantities worldwide. Beer is probably recognized as the beverage most strongly associated with celebration, relaxation, and social interaction, and has become a ubiquitous component of recreational activities. Beer is commonly consumed in a diverse range of settings, including the home, restaurants, and bars, and for a broad range of occasions, particularly social gatherings. For instance, beer is a fixture at professional sporting events of all kinds held around the world. The increasing demand for beer is reflected in the rapid expansion in the number of micro-breweries, and in the growth in popularity of home brewing. Beer consumption continues to grow in popularity, with production doubling over the last thirty years to keep up with demand. In addition, barley plays a ceremonial role in some societies. For instance, in India barley is often used in marriage and other ceremonies.

Bibliography

Bamforth, Charles. Beer: Tap into the Art and Science of Brewing. New York: Plenum Press, 1998.

Barley: Origin, Botany, Culture, Winter Hardiness, Genetics, Utilization, Pests. Agriculture Handbook No. 338. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1979.

Briggs, D. E. Barley. London: Chapman and Hall, 1978.

Cook, A. H., ed. Barley and Malt: Biology, Biochemistry, Technology. New York: Academic Press, 1962.

Davies. M. S., and Gordon C. Hillman. "Domestication of Cereals." In Grass Evolution and Domestication, edited by G. P. Chapman, 199–224. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Heiser, Charles B., Jr. Seed to Civilization. The Story of Food. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990.

Lewis, Michael J., and Tom W. Young. Brewing. London: Chapman and Hall, 1995.

Rasmussen, Donald C., ed. Barley. Madison, Wisc.: The American Society of Agronomy, 1985.

Renfrew, Jane M. Paleoethnobotany: The Prehistoric Food Plants of the Near East and Europe. London: Methuen, 1973. Good illustrations of barley seed morphology and additional useful information on archaeological record in Near East, though barley taxonomy is outdated.

Shewry, Peter R., ed. Barley: Genetics, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biotechnology. Wallingford, U.K.: CAB International, 1992.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service Website. This website is a gateway to a wealth of information on global agriculture, including world production of crops including barley (see crop production tables at http://www.fas.usda.gov/wap/circular/2002/02-01/grains.pdf).

Zohary, Daniel. "The Origin and Early Spread of Agriculture in the Old World." In The Origin and Domestication of Cultivated Plants, edited by C. Barigozzi, pp. 3–20. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986.

Zohary, Daniel, and Maria Hopf. Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley. 2nd ed. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1993.

—David F. Garvin; Harsh Raman; Kevin P. Smith

A genus of cereals and grasses. See hordeum.

• b. beef — a British system of introducing calves into pens at 3 months of age, feeding them intensively on high grain diets and marketing them before 12 months of age.
• b. beef rumenitis — lesions of rumenitis found at necropsy in calves fed heavy barley diets.
• b. grass — hordeum jubatum.
• b. scab fungus — fusarium roseum.

• Grasses, Sedges, and Grasslike Plants
• Grains and Flours
• sugar
• Farming and Crops - barley: cultivated cereal grass, one of man’s first grains

For other uses, see Barley (disambiguation).

Barley
Barley field
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Monocots
(unranked):	Commelinids
Order:	Poales
Family:	Poaceae
Subfamily:	Pooideae
Tribe:	Triticeae
Genus:	Hordeum
Species:	H. vulgare[1]
Binomial name
Hordeum vulgare L.

Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures.

In a 2007 ranking of cereal crops in the world, barley was fourth both in terms of quantity produced (136 million tons) and in area of cultivation (566,000 km²).^[2]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Biology 2.1 Domestication 2.2 Two-row and six-row barley 2.3 Hulless or "naked" barley 2.4 Classification 3 History 4 Production 5 Cultivation 6 Plant diseases 7 Uses 7.1 Algicide 7.2 Animal feed 7.3 Beverages 7.3.1 Alcoholic beverages 7.3.2 Non-alcoholic beverages 7.4 Food 7.5 Measurement 7.6 Ornamental 7.7 Research 8 Cultural significance 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Notes 10.2 Bibliography 11 External links

Etymology

The Old English word for 'barley' was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina "flour". The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, meaning "of barley".^[3] The first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 AD, in the compound word bærlic-croft.^[4] The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there.^[5][6][7] The word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words.^[3]

Biology

Barley

Barley is a member of the grass family. It is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats.^[8]

Domestication

Wild barley has a brittle spike; upon maturity, the spikelets separate, facilitating seed dispersal. Domesticated barley has non-shattering spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.^[8] The non-shattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two tightly-linked genes known as Bt₁ and Bt₂; many cultivars possess both mutations. The non-shattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele.^[8]

Two-row and six-row barley

Two-row and six-row barley

Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley (and other Old World species of Hordeum), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets. This produces six-row barleys. (See Cultivars).^[8] Recent genetic studies have revealed a mutation in one gene, vrs1, is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley.^[9]

Two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley and thus more fermentable sugar content. High protein barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein^[10] ('low grain nitrogen', usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English ale style beers. Six-row barley is common in some American lager style beers, especially when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used, whereas two-row malted summer barley is preferred for traditional German beers.

Hulless or "naked" barley

Hulless or "naked" barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum Hook. f.) is a form of domesticated barley with an easier to remove hull. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley in order to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry.^[11] Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications.^[12]

Classification

Barley

In traditional classifications of barley these morphological differences have led to different forms of barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications two-rowed barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) is classified as Hordeum spontaneum K.Koch. Two-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes is classified as H. distichum L., six-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes as H. vulgare L. (or H. hexastichum L.), and six-rowed with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon Åberg.

The fact that these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence, has led most recent classifications to treat these forms as a single species, H. vulgare L.^[8]

History

An account of barley rations issued monthly to adults (30 or 40 pints) and children (20 pints) written in Cuneiform on clay tablet, written in year 4 of King Urukagina (circa 2350 BC). From Girsu, Iraq. British Museum, London.

Barley was one of the first domesticated grains in the Fertile Crescent (Near East^[13]) which spans the land of present day Iraq, Syria, Israel, Palestine, and Lebanon. The grain appeared in the same time as einkorn and emmer wheat.^[14] Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) ranges from North Africa and Crete in the west, to Tibet in the east.^[8] The earliest evidence of wild barley in an archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 8500 BC.^[8] The earliest domesticated barley occurs at Aceramic Neolithic sites, in the Near East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria. Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500–850 BC) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes.^[15]

In the Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern Eurasia significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; i.e., why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others.^[16]

Barley beer was probably the first drink developed by Neolithic humans.^[17] Barley later on was used as currency.^[17] Alongside emmer wheat, Barley was a staple cereal of ancient Egypt, where it was used to make bread and beer. The general name for barley is jt (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); šma (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to Upper Egyptian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. The Sumerian term is akiti. According to Deuteronomy 8:8, barley is one of the "Seven Species" of crops that characterize the fertility of the Promised Land of Canaan, and barley has a prominent role in the Israelite sacrifices described in the Pentateuch (see e.g. Numbers 5:15). A religious importance extended into the Middle Ages in Europe, and saw barley's use in justice, via alphitomancy and the corsned.

Barley in Egyptian hieroglyphs

jt barley determinative/ideogram
jt (common) spelling
šma determinative/ideogram

In ancient Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the Eleusinian Mysteries. The preparatory kykeon or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, referred in the Homeric hymn to Demeter, whose name some scholars believe meant "Barley-mother".^[18] The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder's Natural History (xviii.72). This produces malt that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic.

Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as hordearii, "barley-eaters". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple.^[19]

Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibet since the 5th century AD. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies.^[20] It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet.^[21] The flour is roasted and mixed with butter and butter tea to form a stiff dough that is eaten in small balls.

In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes.^[19] Potatoes largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century.^[22]

Production

Top ten barley producers — 2009 (million metric tonne)
Russia	17.9
France	12.9
Germany	12.3
Ukraine	11.8
Canada	9.5
Australia	8.1
Turkey	7.3
United Kingdom	6.8
United States	4.9
Poland	4.0
World total	152
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO)[23]

Barley was grown in about 100 countries worldwide in 2007. The world production in 1974 was 148,818,870 tonnes; since then, there has been a slight decline in the amount of barley produced worldwide.^[19] Upon the results of 2011, Ukraine was the world leader in barley export.^[24]

German botanical illustration of barley

Cultivation

Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is anywhere from 1 to 3 days. Barley likes to grow under cool conditions but is not particularly winter hardy.

Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation in Mesopotamia from the 2nd millennium BC onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats (Triticum aestivum), fall rye (Secale cereale) or winter Triticale (× Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of the world such as Australia.

Barley has a short growing season and is also relatively drought tolerant.^[19]

Plant diseases

Main article: List of barley diseases

This plant is known or likely to be susceptible to barley mild mosaic bymovirus^[25][26] as well as bacterial blight. Barley can be susceptible to many diseases but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development. Serious diseases of barley include powdery mildew, caused by Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei, Leaf Scald, caused by Rhynchosporium secalis, Barley rust, caused by Puccinia hordei, and various diseases caused by Cochliobolus sativus. Fusarium species cause Head Blight (Am. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusarium_ear_blight)

Uses

Algicide

Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help reduce algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algicide in ponds has produced mixed results during university testing in the US and the UK.^[27]

Animal feed

Half of the United States' barley production is used as calf feed.^[28] Barley is an important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for maize production, especially in northern climates - for example, northern and eastern Europe. Barley is the principal feed grain in Canada, Europe, and in the northern United States.^[29] A finishing diet of barley is one of the defining characteristics of Western Canadian beef used in marketing campaigns.^[30]

Beverages

Alcoholic beverages

Beer

A large part of the remainder is used for malting, for which barley is the best suited grain.^[31] It is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers, but both varieties are in common usage now.^[32] Distilled from green beer,^[33] whisky has been made primarily from barley in Ireland and Scotland, while other countries have utilized more diverse sources of alcohol; such as the more common corn, rye and wheat in the USA. In the USA, a grain type may be identified on a whisky label if that type of grain constitutes 51% or more of the ingredients and certain other conditions are satisfied.^[34]

Barley wine was an alcoholic drink in the 18th century. It was prepared by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine and other ingredients like borage, lemon and sugar. In the 19th century a different barley wine was made prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin.^[3]

Non-alcoholic beverages

Non-alcoholic drinks such as barley water^[3] and barley tea (called mugicha in Japan)^[35] have been made by boiling barley in water. In Italy, barley is also sometimes used as coffee substitute, caffè d'orzo (Coffee of Barley). This drink is obtained from ground roasted barley and it is prepared as an espresso (it can be prepared using percolators, filter machines or cafetieres). It become widely used during the Fascist period and the war as Italy was affected by embargo and struggled to import coffee. It was also a cheaper option for poor families (often grown and roasted at home) in the period. Afterwards it was promoted and sold as a coffee substitute for children. Nowadays it is experiencing a revival and it can be considered some Italians' favourite alternative to coffee when for health reasons caffeine drinks are not recommended.

Food

Barley, oats, and some products made from them

Raw barley

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	1,474 kJ (352 kcal)
Carbohydrates	77.7 g
- Sugars	0.8 g
- Dietary fiber	15.6 g
Fat	1.2 g
Protein	9.9 g
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.2 mg (17%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.1 mg (8%)
Niacin (vit. B3)	4.6 mg (31%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)	0.3 mg (6%)
Vitamin B6	0.3 mg (23%)
Folate (vit. B9)	23 μg (6%)
Vitamin C	0.0 mg (0%)
Calcium	29.0 mg (3%)
Iron	2.5 mg (19%)
Magnesium	79.0 mg (22%)
Phosphorus	221 mg (32%)
Potassium	280 mg (6%)
Zinc	2.1 mg (22%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Barley contains eight essential amino acids.^[36][37] According to a recent study, eating whole grain barley can regulate blood sugar (i.e. reduce blood glucose response to a meal) for up to 10 hours after consumption compared to white or even whole-grain wheat, which has a similar glycemic index.^[38] The effect was attributed to colonic fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates. Barley can also be used as a coffee substitute.

Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous outer hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley).^[39] Considered a whole grain, dehulled barley still has its bran and germ making it a nutritious and popular health food. Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled barley which has been steam processed further to remove the bran.^[39] It may be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into a variety of barley products, including flour, flakes similar to oatmeal, and grits.

Barley-meal, a wholemeal barley flour which is lighter than wheatmeal but darker in colour, is used in porridge and gruel in Scotland.^[39] Barley-meal gruel is known as Sawiq in the Arab world.^[40] With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East, barley is used in a wide range of traditional Assyrian, Arabic, Israelite, Kurdish, Persian, and Assyrian foodstuffs including kashkak, kashk and murri. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia.^[41] Cholent or Hamin (in Hebrew) is a traditional Jewish stew often eaten on the Sabbath, in a variety of recipes by both Mizrachi and Ashkenazi Jews, with barley cited throughout the Hebrew Bible in multiple references. In Eastern Europe, barley is also used in soups and stews. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.^[42]

The six row variety bere is cultivated in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles in the Scottish Highlands and islands. The grain is used to make beremeal, used locally in bread, biscuits, and the traditional beremeal bannock.^[43]

Like wheat and rye, barley contains gluten which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by those with celiac disease.

Measurement

Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being 3 or 4 barleycorns to the inch and 4 or 5 poppy seeds to the barleycorn.^[44] The statute definition of an inch was 3 barleycorns, although by the 19th century this had been superseded by standard inch measures.^[45] This unit still persists in the shoe sizes which are used in Britain and the USA.^[46]

The barleycorn was known as arpa in Turkish, and the feudal system in Ottoman Empire employed the term Arpalik, or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.^[47]

Ornamental

A new stabilized variegated variety of Hordeum vulgare, billed as Hordeum vulgare varigate, has been introduced for cultivation as an ornamental and pot plant for pet cats to nibble on.^[48]

Research

The chlorophyll binding a/b protein is missing in albostrains of barley, and they have been used to study plastid development in plants. Researching white streaked strains, plant scientists have gained a greater understanding of reporter gene expression in the production of chloroplast proteins.^[49]

Cultural significance

In Islam, Muhammad prescribed barley (Talbina) for seven diseases.^[50] It was also said to soothe and calm the bowels. Avicenna in his 11th century work The Canon of Medicine wrote of the healing effects of barley water, soup and broth for fevers.^[51] Additionally, barley can be roasted and turned into roasted barley tea, a popular Asian drink.

In English folklore, The figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it, beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting. He may be related to older pagan gods such as Mímir or Kvasir.^[52]

See also

• Maris Otter

References

Notes

1. ^ "Hordeum vulgare". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=40874. 
2. ^ "FAOSTAT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/faostat. Retrieved 2009-05-18. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d} Ayto, John (1990). The glutton's glossary : a dictionary of food and drink terms. London: Routledge. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0415026474. http://books.google.com/?id=vAQOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA17&dq=barley+water+was+used 
4. ^ J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed. (1989). "barley". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. 
5. ^ "Dictionary of the Scots Language: "DSL - SND1 BEAR, BERE, Beer, Bar"". http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=18327&startset=1964317&query=BEAR&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=snd#fhit. Retrieved 2008-11-19. 
6. ^ Smout, T.C. (1972) A History of the Scottish People 1560-1830 p114
7. ^ "Dictionary of the Scots Language: "DSL - DOST Bere, Beir"". http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=6222&startset=3242554&query=Bere&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=dost#fhit. Retrieved 2008-11-19. 
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Zohary, Daniel; Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 59–69. ISBN 0198503571. http://books.google.com/?id=C1H6_XWJS_gC&pg=PA59&vq=barley&dq=Domestication+of+Plants+in+the+Old+World:+The+Origin+and+Spread+of+Cultivated+Plants+in+West+Asia,+Europe,+and+the+Nile+Valley. 
9. ^ Komatsuda, T.; Pourkheirandish, M; He, C; Azhaguvel, P; Kanamori, H; Perovic, D; Stein, N; Graner, A et al (2006). "Six-rowed barley originated from a mutation in a homeodomain-leucine zipper I-class homeobox gene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (4): 1424–1429. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608580104. PMC 1783110. PMID 17220272. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1783110. 
10. ^ Adrian Johnston, Scott Murrell, and Cynthia Grant. "Nitrogen Fertilizer Management of Malting Barley: Impacts of Crop and Fertilizer Nitrogen Prices (Prairie Provinces and Northern Great Plains States)". International Plant Nutrition Institute. http://www.ppi-far.org/ppiweb/ppibase.nsf/$webindex/article=0EA04C0385256CF50062045A0D8E2931. Retrieved 2009-05-28. 
11. ^ Bhatty, R.S. (1999). "The potential of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry 76 (5): 589–599. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.5.589. 
12. ^ Bhatty, R.S. (2011). "β-glucan and flour yield of hull-less barley". Cereal Chemistry 76 (2): 314–315. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.314. 
13. ^ NSLC.wustl.edu
14. ^ -Saltini Antonio, I semi della civiltà. Grano, riso e mais nella storia delle società umane,, prefazione di Luigi Bernabò Brea Avenue Media, Bologna 1996
15. ^ Crawford, Gary W.; Gyoung-Ah Lee (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula". Antiquity 77 (295): 87–95. ISSN 0003-598X. 
16. ^ Diamond, Jared M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 141. ISBN 0-393-03891-2. 
17. ^ ^{a b} Pellechia, Thomas (2006). Wine : the 8,000-year-old story of the wine trade. Philadelphia: Running Press. p. 10. ISBN 1560258713. http://books.google.com/?id=K6OTKiIlyAIC&pg=PA10&dq=barley+beer+first+drink 
18. ^ J. Dobraszczyk, Bogdan (2001). Cereals and cereal products: chemistry and technology. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 0-8342-1767-8. 
19. ^ ^{a b c d} McGee, p. 235
20. ^ Fernandez, Felipe Armesto (2001). Civilizations: Culture, Ambition and the Transformation of Nature. p. 265. ISBN 0743216504 
21. ^ Dreyer, June Teufel; Sautman, Barry (2006). Contemporary Tibet : politics, development, and society in a disputed region. Armonk, New York: Sharpe. p. 262. ISBN 0765613549. http://books.google.com/?id=Ou4f4q8gGcIC&pg=PA262&dq=tsampa, 
22. ^ Roden, Claudia (1997). The Book of Jewish Food. Knopf. p. 135. ISBN 0394532589. 
23. ^ FAOSTAT.fao.org
24. ^ Ukraine becomes world's third biggest grain exporter in 2011 - minister
25. ^ Brunt, A. A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M. J., Gibbs, A. J., Watson, L. and Zurcher, E. J. (editors) (20 August 1996). "Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database". http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/refs.htm. 
26. ^ "Barley mild mosaic bymovirus". http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr059.htm. 
27. ^ BTNY.edu
28. ^ "Barley". http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Barley.html. Retrieved 2008-02-02. 
29. ^ AG.ndsu.edu
30. ^ OMAFRA.gov.on.ca
31. ^ McGee, p. 471
32. ^ Ogle, Maureen (2006). Ambitious brew : the story of American beer. Orlando: Harcourt. pp. 70–72. ISBN 0151010129. http://books.google.com/?id=0vuOyazwh4YC&pg=PA71&dq=and+six-row+barley+was+traditionally+used+in+US+beers. 
33. ^ McGee, p. 481
34. ^ McGee, p. 490
35. ^ Clarke, ed by R J (1988). Coffee. London: Elsevier Applied Science. p. 84. ISBN 1851661034. http://books.google.com/?id=n9ZEMquvPoYC&pg=PA84&dq=mugicha 
36. ^ Womens-health-symmetry.com
37. ^ Essentialfood.co.uk
38. ^ Nilsson, A.; et al. (2006). "Effects of GI and content of indigestible carbohydrates of cereal-based evening meals on glucose tolerance at a subsequent standardised breakfast". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60 (9): 1092–1099. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602423. PMID 16523203. 
39. ^ ^{a b c} Simon, André (1963) Guide to Good Food and Wines: A Concise Encyclopedia of Gastronomy Complete and Unabridged p. 150 Collins, London
40. ^ Tabari, W. Montgomery Watt, M. V. McDonald (1987). The History of Al-Tabari: The Foundation of the Community: Muhammad at Al-Madina, A. D. 622-626/ijrah-4 A. H.. SUNY Press. ISBN 0887063446, 9780887063442. http://books.google.com/?id=ctvk-fdtklYC&pg=PA89&dq=barley+sawiq. 
41. ^ Long, David E. (2005). Culture and customs of Saudi Arabia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 50. ISBN 0313320217. 
42. ^ National Research Council (1996-02-14). "Other Cultivated Grains". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Lost Crops of Africa. 1. National Academies Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-309-04990-0. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=237. Retrieved 2008-07-25. 
43. ^ Martin, Peter; Xianmin Chang (2008-06). "Bere Whisky: rediscovering the spirit of an old barley". The Brewer & Distiller International 4 (6): 41–43. http://www.ibd.org.uk. Retrieved 2008-11-14. 
44. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2009. http://dictionary.oed.com 
45. ^ George Long (1842). The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. C. Knight. p. 436. http://books.google.com/?id=rJhOFg1yiqUC 
46. ^ Cairns, Warwick (2007). About the Size of It. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-01628-6. 
47. ^ Houtsma M Th; Arnold TW, Wensinck AJ (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. Brill. p. 460. ISBN 9004097961. 
48. ^ http://www.loghouseplants.com/images/catgrass2.pdf
49. ^ Jaiswal, Vijai Shanker; Ram, V. S. Jaiswal H. Y. Mohan (2000). The Changing Scenario in Plant Sciences. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.. p. 299. ISBN 81-7764-021-6. http://books.google.com/?id=AjU2O0JrF3IC&pg=PA299. 
50. ^ Hadith. Volume 7, Book 71, Number 593: (Narrated 'Ursa)
51. ^ Scully, Terence; Dumville DN (1997). The art of cookery in the Middle Ages. Boydell Press. pp. 187–88. ISBN 0851154301. 
52. ^ de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. pp. 34–35. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3. 

Bibliography

• McGee, Harold (1986). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Unwin. ISBN 0-04-440277-5. 
•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Barley". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links

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• Crop Wild Relatives Gap Analysis Portal reliable information source on where and what to conserve ex-situ, regarding Hordeum genepool
• A Brief History of Barley Foods
• Cooking with barley and barley recipes
• Genetically modified barley - No effects on beneficial fungi Results of the safety research
• Barley from NutritionData
• Nutritive value of barley
• Medical Research on Barley Benefits
• The National Barley Foods Council (NBFC) home page.
• Barley Information for Growers, eXtension
• Encyclopedia of Life

v d e Barley resources History Domestication · Neolithic Revolution · Triticeae Types of barley Genus: Hordeum · Cultivars: Bere Agronomy Barley diseases Trade Australian Barley Board · Canadian Wheat Board · Corn exchange · Production by country · Wheat pool Parts of the plant Bran · Germ · Husk · Kernel · Gluten · Straw Basic preparations Milling: Flour (types) · Groats · Meal · Middlings · Parboiling: As an ingredient Barley bread · Barley honey · Beer · Caffé d'orzo · Irish whiskey · Japanese whisky · Malta · Roasted barley tea · Scotch whisky · Talbina · see also: Category:Barley-based beverages Associated human diseases Gluten sensitivity (Coeliac disease, etc.) Related concepts Bread riot · Cattle feeding · Plant breeding · Refined grains · Staple food · Whole grain Further information

v d e Cereals and pseudocereals Amaranth Amaranthus caudatus Amaranthus cruentus Amaranthus hypochondriacus Barley Buckwheat Chia Fonio Job's Tears Kañiwa Maize (corn) Millet Oat Pitseed Goosefoot Quinoa Rice Rye Sorghum Spelt Teff Triticale Wheat Wild rice CWR

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - byg

idioms:

• barley sugar    slikkepind
• barley water    bygafkog

Nederlands (Dutch)
gerst

Français (French)
n. - orge

idioms:

• barley sugar    sucre d'orge
• barley water    orgeat, sirop d'orgeat

Deutsch (German)
n. - Gerste

idioms:

• barley sugar    Gerstenzucker
• barley water    Gerstenwasser

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κριθάρι, κριθή

idioms:

• barley sugar    (μαγειρική) καραμέλα
• barley water    κριθαρόνερο

Italiano (Italian)
orzo

idioms:

• barley sugar    zucchero d'orzo
• barley water    acqua d'orzo

Português (Portuguese)
n. - cevada (f)

idioms:

• barley sugar    maltose (f)
• barley water    café (m) de cevada

Русский (Russian)
ячмень

idioms:

• barley sugar    леденцы
• barley water    ячменный отвар

Español (Spanish)
n. - cebada

idioms:

• barley sugar    azúcar candi
• barley water    hordiate, bebida de cebada

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - korn

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
大麦

idioms:

• barley sugar    大麦糖, 麦芽糖
• barley water    大麦茶, 麦茶

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 大麥

idioms:

• barley sugar    大麥糖, 麥芽糖
• barley water    大麥茶, 麥茶

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 보리

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 大麦, 大麦の粒

idioms:

• barley sugar    大麦糖
• barley water    大麦湯

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) شعير‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮שעורה‬

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