paper

1. A material made of cellulose pulp, derived mainly from wood, rags, and certain grasses, processed into flexible sheets or rolls by deposit from an aqueous suspension, and used chiefly for writing, printing, drawing, wrapping, and covering walls.
2. A single sheet of this material.
3. One or more sheets of paper bearing writing or printing, especially:
   1. A formal written composition intended to be published, presented, or read aloud; a scholarly essay or treatise.
   2. A piece of written work for school; a report or theme.
   3. An official document, especially one establishing the identity of the bearer. Often used in the plural.
4. papers A collection of letters, diaries, and other writings, especially by one person: the Madison papers.
5. Commercial documents that represent value and can be transferred from owner to owner; negotiable instruments considered as a group: "billions more invested in American stocks, bonds, certificates of deposit, and other paper" (Christian Science Monitor).
6. A newspaper.
7. Wallpaper.
8. A wrapper made of paper, often with its contents: a paper of pins.
9. Slang.
   1. A free pass to a theater.
   2. The audience admitted with free passes.

1. To cover, wrap, or line with paper.
2. To cover with wallpaper.
3. To supply with paper.
4. Slang. To issue free passes for (a theater, for example).
5. To construct (something) in haste and with little forethought: papered together a new coalition of political convenience.

1. Made of paper.
2. Resembling paper, as in thinness or flimsiness.
3. Of or relating to clerical work: paper duties.
4. 1. Existing only in printed or written form: paper profits; a paper corporation.
   2. Planned but not realized; theoretical.

paper over

1. To put or keep out of sight; conceal: paper over a deficit with accounting gimmicks.
2. To downplay or gloss over (differences, for example), especially in order to maintain a nominal, apparent, or temporary unity.

in paper

1. With a paperback binding; as a paperback.

1. In writing or print.
2. In theory, as opposed to actual performance or fact: It is a good team on paper, but its members play poorly together.

[Middle English, from Old French papier, from Latin papȳrus, papyrus plant, papyrus paper, from Greek papūros.]

For more information on paper, visit Britannica.com.

Background

Formed from wood pulp or plant fiber, paper is chiefly used for written communication. The earliest paper was papyrus, made from reeds by the ancient Egyptians. Paper was made by the Chinese in the second century, probably by a Chinese court official named Cai Lun. His paper was made from such things as tree bark and old fish netting. Recognized almost immediately as a valuable secret, it was 500 years before the Japanese acquired knowledge of the method. Papermaking was known in the Islamic world from the end of the eighth century A.D.

Knowledge of papermaking eventually moved westward, and the first European paper mill was built at Jativa, in the province of Valencia, Spain, in about 1150. By the end of the 15th century, paper mills existed in Italy, France, Germany, and England, and by the end of the 16th century, paper was being made throughout Europe.

Paper, whether produced in the modern factory or by the most careful, delicate hand methods, is made up of connected fibers. The fibers can come from a number of sources including cloth rags, cellulose fibers from plants, and, most notably, trees. The use of cloth in the process has always produced high-quality paper. Today, a large proportion of cotton and linen fibers in the mix create many excellent papers for special uses, from wedding invitation paper stock to special paper for pen and ink drawings.

The method of making paper is essentially a simple one—mix up vegetable fibers, and cook them in hot water until the fibers are soft but not dissolved. The hot water also contains a base chemical such as lye, which softens the fibers as they are cooking. Then, pass a screen-like material through the mixture, let the water drip off and/or evaporate, and then squeeze or blot out additional water. A layer of paper is left behind. Essential to the process are the fibers, which are never totally destroyed, and, when mixed and softened, form an interlaced pattern within the paper itself. Modern papermaking methods, although significantly more complicated than the older ways, are developmental improvements rather than entirely new methods of making paper.

Raw Materials

Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has been purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from sawmills, recycled newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled cloth. Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for papermaking because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, therefore making for stronger paper. These trees are called "softwood" by the paper industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm) are called "hardwood." Because of increasing demand for paper, and improvements in pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can now be harvested for paper.

Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and sugarcane. Flax, hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles and rope making, but they can also be used for paper. Some high-grade cigarette paper is made from flax.

Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are usually cuttings and waste from textile and garment mills. The rags must be cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper mill.

Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum, and starch.

The Manufacturing
Process

Making pulp

• Several processes are commonly used to convert logs to wood pulp. In the mechanical process, logs are first tumbled in drums to remove the bark. The logs are then sent to grinders, which break the wood down into pulp by pressing it between huge revolving slabs. The pulp is filtered to remove foreign objects. In the chemical process, wood chips from de-barked logs are cooked in a chemical solution. This is done in huge vats called digesters. The chips are fed into the digester, and then boiled at high pressure in a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The chips dissolve into pulp in the solution. Next the pulp is sent through filters. Bleach may be added at this stage, or colorings. The pulp is sent to the paper plant.

Beating

• The pulp is next put through a pounding and squeezing process called, appropriately enough, beating. Inside a large tub, the pulp is subjected to the effect of machine beaters. At this point, various filler materials can be added such as chalks, clays, or chemicals such as titanium oxide. These additives will influence the opacity and other qualities of the final product. Sizings are also added at this point. Sizing affects the way the paper will react with various inks. Without any sizing at all, a paper will be too absorbent for most uses except as a desk blotter. A sizing such as starch makes the paper resistant to water-based ink (inks actually sit on top of a sheet of paper, rather than sinking in). A variety of sizings, generally rosins and gums, is available depending on the eventual use of the paper. Paper that will receive a printed design, such as gift wrapping, requires a particular formula of sizing that will make the paper accept the printing properly.

Pulp to paper

• In order to finally turn the pulp into paper, the pulp is fed or pumped into giant, automated machines. One common type is called the Fourdrinier machine, which was invented in England in 1807. Pulp is fed into the Fourdrinier machine on a moving belt of fine mesh screening. The pulp is squeezed through a series of rollers, while suction devices below the belt drain off water. If the paper is to receive a water-mark, a device called a dandy moves across the sheet of pulp and presses a design into it.

  The paper then moves onto the press section of the machine, where it is pressed between rollers of wool felt. The paper then passes over a series of steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining water. A large machine may have from 40 to 70 drying cylinders.

Finishing

• Finally, the dried paper is wound onto large reels, where it will be further processed depending on its ultimate use. Paper is smoothed and compacted further by passing through metal rollers called calendars. A particular finish, whether soft and dull or hard and shiny, can be imparted by the calendars.

  The paper may be further finished by passing through a vat of sizing material. It may also receive a coating, which is either brushed on or rolled on. Coating adds chemicals or pigments to the paper's surface, supplementing the sizings and fillers from earlier in the process. Fine clay is often used as a coating. The paper may next be supercalendered, that is, run through extremely smooth calendar rollers, for a final time. Then the paper is cut to the desired size.

Environmental Concerns

The number of trees and other vegetation cut down in order to make paper is enormous. Paper companies insist that they plant as many new trees as they cut down. Environmentalists contend that the new growth trees, so much younger and smaller than what was removed, cannot replace the value of older trees. Efforts to recycle used paper (especially newspapers) have been effective in at least partially mitigating the need for destruction of woodlands, and recycled paper is now an important ingredient in many types of paper production.

The chemicals used in paper manufacture, including dyes, inks, bleach, and sizing, can also be harmful to the environment when they are released into water supplies and nearby land after use. The industry has, sometimes with government prompting, cleared up a large amount of pollution, and federal requirements now demand pollutionfree paper production. The cost of such clean-up efforts is passed on to the consumer.

Where To Learn More

Books

Biermann, Christopher J. Essentials of Pulping & Papermaking. Academic Press, 1993.

Bell, Lilian A. Plant Fibers for Papermaking. Liliaceae Press, 1992.

Ferguson, Kelly, ed. New Trends and Developments in Papermaking. Miller Freeman, Inc., 1994.

Munsell, Joel. Chronology and Process of Papermaking, 1876-1990. Albert Saifer Publisher, 1992.

Periodicals

deGrassi, Jennifer. "Primitive Papermaking." Schools Arts, February 1981, pp. 32-33.

Kleiner, Art. "Making Paper." Co-Evolution Quarterly, Winter 1980, p. 138.

Lamb, Lynette. "Tree-Free Paper." Utne Reader, March-April 1994, p. 40.

Saddington, Marrianne. "How to Make Homemade Paper." Mother Earth News, December-January 1993, p. 30+.

Sessions, Larry. "Making Paper." Family Explorer, October 1994.

[Article by: Lawrence H. Berlow]

A flexible web or mat of fibers isolated from wood or other plants materials by the operation of pulping. Nonwovens are webs or mats made from synthetic polymers, such as high-strength polyethylene fibers, that substitute for paper in large envelopes and tote bags.

Paper is made with additives to control the process and modify the properties of the final product. The fibers may be whitened by bleaching, and the fibers are prepared for papermaking by the process of refining. Stock preparation involves removal of dirt from the fiber slurry and mixing of various additives to the pulp prior to papermaking. Papermaking is accomplished by applying a dilute slurry of fibers in water to a continuous wire or screen; the rest of the machine removes water from the fiber mat. The steps can be demonstrated by laboratory handsheet making, which is used for process control.

Although paper has numerous specialized uses in products as diverse as cigarettes, capacitors, and counter tops (resin-impregnated laminates), it is principally used in packaging (∼50%), printing (∼40%), and sanitary (∼7%) applications.

Material of basis weight greater than 200 g/m² is classified as paperboard, while lighter material is called paper. Production by weight is about equal for these two classes. Paperboard is used in corrugated boxes; corrugated material consists of top and bottom layers of paperboard called linerboard, separated by fluted corrugating paper. Paperboard also includes chipboard (a solid material used in many cold-cereal boxes, shoe boxes, and the backs of paper tablets) and food containers.

Mechanical pulp is used in newsprint, catalog, and other short-lived papers; they are only moderately white, and yellow quickly with age because the lignin is not removed. A mild bleaching treatment (called brightening) with hydrogen peroxide or sodium dithionite (or both) masks some of the color of the lignin without lignin removal. Paper made with mechanical pulp and coated with clay to improve brightness and gloss is used in 70% of magazines and catalogs, and in some enamel grades. Bleached chemical pulps are used in higher grades of printing papers used for xerography, typing paper, tablets, and envelopes; these papers are termed uncoated wood-free (meaning free of mechanical pulp). Coated wood-free papers are of high to very high grade and are used in applications such as high-quality magazines and annual reports; they are coated with calcium carbonate, clay, or titanium dioxide.

Like wood, paper is a hygroscopic material; that is, it absorbs water from, and also releases water into, the air. It has an equilibrium moisture content of about 7–9% at room temperature and 50% relative humidity. In low humidities, paper is brittle; in high humidities, it has poor strength properties.

The heaviest grades of papers, such as chipboard, are made on multiformer (cylinder) machines that form three to eight layers of fiber mats. These fiber mats are combined prior to pressing and drying. The lightest grades of paper, tissues, cannot withstand numerous felt transfers and are dried on very large Yankee dryers.

Paper may be smoothed against a series of rolls made from metal or rubbery material to impart smoothness or gloss. Paper may also be coated with a paintlike material to give it high brightness and gloss. In addition, numerous other converting operations may be performed on paper.

Generic term for short-term debt instruments, such as bankers' acceptances, commercial paper, and documentary drafts. Short-term obligations are a source of credit to businesses needing temporary financing, for example, an importer who needs bank financing to cover the cost of merchandise until his inventory is sold. Short-term paper with maturities under 90 days is eligible for Rediscount at a Federal Reserve Bank; that is, it can be used as collateral for a Federal Reserve credit advance. See also Discount Window; Eligible Paper.

Credit given, evidenced by a written obligation that is given or received instead of cash.
Example: Dunn sells his property for $100,000. He receives $20,000 cash and $80,000 of paper that is payable over 20 years at 10% interest.

noun

A relatively brief discourse written especially as an exercise: composition, essay, theme. See words.

Idioms beginning with paper:
paper over

In addition to the idiom beginning with paper, also see on paper; push paper; walking papers.

Definition: thin, flimsy
Antonyms: thick

v

Definition: line with material
Antonyms: peal, strip, unline

A document that is filed or introduced in evidence in a lawsuit, as in the phrases papers in the case and papers on appeal.

Any written or printed statement, including letters, memoranda, legal or business documents, and books of account, in the context of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects the people from unreasonable searches and seizures with respect to their "papers" as well as their persons and houses.

In the context of accommodation paper and commercial paper, a written or printed evidence of debt.

Dreaming about a blank sheet of paper can refer to something that is not expressed, something we have not "put down on paper," which can be an idea or a communication. Wrapping paper can refer to a gift or to the outer impression something conveys. A dream about paper can also be alluding to the meaning of a familiar idiom, such as "paper tiger," "paper over the cracks," a "paper trail," or "not worth the paper it's written on."

For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation).

A stack of manila paper

Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.

Paper is a versatile material with many uses. Whilst the most common is for writing and printing upon, it is also widely used as a packaging material, in many cleaning products, in a number of industrial and construction processes, and occasionally as a food ingredient, particularly in Asian cultures.

Contents 1 History 2 Papermaking 2.1 Chemical pulping 2.2 Mechanical pulping 2.3 Deinked pulp 2.4 Additives 2.5 Producing paper 2.6 Finishing 3 Applications 4 Types, thickness and weight 5 The future of paper 6 See also 7 References and notes 8 External links

History

Main article: History of paper

Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty and List of Chinese inventions

The word paper derives from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. The immediate predecessor to modern paper is believed to have originated in China in approximately the 2nd century AD, although there is some evidence for it being used before this date. Papermaking is considered to be one of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China, since the first papermaking process was developed in China during the early 2nd century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun. China used paper as an effective and cheap alternative to silk, letting them sell more silk, leading to a Golden Age. The use of paper spread from China through the Islamic world, where the first paper mills were built, and entered production in Europe in the early 12th century. Mechanized production of paper in the early 19th century caused significant cultural changes worldwide, allowing for relatively cheap exchange of information in the form of letters, newspapers and books for the first time. In 1844, both Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and German inventor F.G. Keller had invented the machine and process for pulping wood for the use in paper making.^[1] This would end the nearly 2000-year use of pulped rags and start a new era for the production of newsprint and eventually all paper out of pulped wood.

Papermaking

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.

Main article: Papermaking

Chemical pulping

Main articles: kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping

The purpose of a chemical pulping process is to break down the chemical structure of lignin and render it soluble in the cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose fibers. Because lignin holds the plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibres and makes pulp. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper for printing, painting and writing. Chemical pulps tend to cost more than mechanical pulps, largely due to the low yield, 40–50% of the original wood. Since the process preserves fibre length, however, chemical pulps tend to make stronger paper. Another advantage of chemical pulping is that the majority of the heat and electricity needed to run the process is produced by burning the lignin removed during pulping.

Papers made from chemical wood-based pulps are also known as wood-free papers.

The Kraft process is the most commonly practiced strategy for pulp manufacturing and produces especially strong, unbleached papers that can be used directly for bags and boxes but are often processed further, e.g. to make corrugated cardboard.

Mechanical pulping

There are two major mechanical pulps, thermo mechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where the chips are squeezed and fibreized between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and fibreized. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibre lengths and produce weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than chemical pulp.

Deinked pulp

Main article: deinking

Paper recycling processes can use either chemical or mechanical pulp. By mixing with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre in the interests of quality. Generally deinked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.

There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.

• Mill Broke or Internal Mill Waste — this incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be repulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre. However, most paper mills have been recycling their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling become popular.
• Preconsumer Waste — this is offcuts and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste. This waste is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source. Also includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications). ^[2]
• Postconsumer waste — this is fibre from paper which has been used for its intended end use and would include office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this paper has been printed (either digitally or by more conventional means such as litho or gravure), it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a deinking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp. They are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from virgin pulp.

Additives

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve the characteristics of the paper for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed into the pulp and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process. The purpose of sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit the ink or paint.

Producing paper

Main articles: papermachine and handmade paper

The pulp is feed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, felt (not to be confused with the traditional felt) is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used.

Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These dryers can heat to temperatures above 200°F (93°C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans. The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Finishing

The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.

All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.^[3]

Applications

A Paper cutter

• To write or print on: the piece of paper becomes a document; this may be for keeping a record (or in the case of printing from a computer or copying from another paper: an additional record) and for communication; see also reading.

Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.^[4]

• To represent a value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see Security paper), voucher and ticket
• For storing information: book, notebook, magazine, newspaper, art, zine, letter
  • for personal use: diary, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
  • for communication to someone else:
    • by transportation of the paper from the place where it is written or printed to the place where it is read: delivered by sender, transported by a third party (e.g. in the case of mail), or taken by the receiver
    • by writing at the same place as where it is read:
      • if sender and receiver are not there at the same time, in the case of a posted notice
      • if sender and receiver are both present, but use paper for illustration, or if communication by talking is not suitable:
        • because one is mute or the other is deaf
        • to avoid other people hearing it, because it is secret, or in order not to disturb them
        • in a noisy environment
• For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping tissue, Charta emporetica and wallpaper
• For cleaning: toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter
• For construction: papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, Paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and clothing
• Other uses: emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper (see also dielectrics and permittivity) and filter paper

Types, thickness and weight

Card and paper stock for craft use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.

Main articles: Paper size and Paper density

The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch.^[5] Paper may be between 0.07 millimetres (0.0028 in) and 0.18 millimetres (0.0071 in) thick.^[6]

Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8½ x 11" paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces.^[7] In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.

The 8.5" x 11" size stems from the original size of a vat that was used to make paper.^{[citation needed]} At the time, paper was made from passing a fiber and water slurry through a screen at the bottom of a box. The box was 17" deep and 44" wide. That sheet, folded in half in the long direction, then twice in the opposite direction, made a sheet of paper that was exactly 8.5" x 11".

In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m² or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.

The sizing system in Europe is based on common width to height ratios for different paper sizes. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero). Two sheets of A1, placed upright side by side fit exactly into one sheet of A0 laid on its side. Similarly, two sheets of A2 fit into one sheet of A1 and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).

The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m³ (16 lb/ft³) for tissue paper to 1500 kg/m³ (94 lb/ft³) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m³ (50 lb/ft³).^[8]

Some paper types include:

• Bank paper
• Banana paper
• Bond paper
• Book paper
• Coated paper: glossy and matte surface
• Construction paper/sugar paper
• Cotton paper
• Electronic paper
• Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)
• Inkjet paper
• Kraft paper
• Laid paper
• Leather paper
• mummy paper
• Sandpaper
• Tyvek paper
• Paper towels
• Wallpaper
• Washi
• Waterproof paper
• Wax paper
• Wove paper

The future of paper

Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging made out of paper, known commercially as paperfoam. The packaging has very similar mechanical properties to some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper. ^[9]

With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags. ^[10]

Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.

See also

• Arches paper
• Buckypaper
• Deinked pulp
• Graphene Oxide Paper
• Origami
• Paper and ink testing
• Paper engineering
• Paper recycling
• Paper size
• Paper towels
• Papier-mâché
• Papier "paper" in French or German
• Security paper
• Seed paper
• Toilet paper

References and notes

1. ^ Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8 pp.25-30
2. ^ Natural Resource Defense Council
3. ^ "Document Doubles" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
4. ^ "Grades and uses of paper". http://www.paperonweb.com/grade11.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-12. 
5. ^ "Paper Thickness Chart", Case Paper Company Inc.
6. ^ "Thickness of a Piece of Paper", HyperTextbook.com
7. ^ McKenzie, Bruce G., The Hammermill Guide to Desktop Publishing in Business, p. 144, Hammermill Papers, 1989.
8. ^ "Density of paper and paperboard". PaperOnWeb. http://www.paperonweb.com/density.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-31. 
9. ^ PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging
10. ^ Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemicals and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. (also published in Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986.)

also referred to as:

• Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin, '"Paper and Printing," vol. 5 part 1 of Needham, Joseph Science and Civilization in China:. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0521086906. (also published in Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986.)
• "Document Doubles" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Paper

• TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
• How is paper made? at The Straight Dope, 22 November 2005
• How Paper Is Made
• United States Government Printing Office: Government Paper Specification Standards
• How Organic Paper is Made

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - papir
v. tr. - dække med papir, tapetsere
adj. - papir-, fiktiv

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    Det er ikke det papir værd, som det er skrevet på
• on paper    på papir
• paper boy    avisdreng
• paper clip    papirclips
• paper feed    papirtilførsel
• paper knife    papirkniv
• paper mill    papirfabrik
• paper money    papirpenge
• paper over    dække over
• paper over the cracks    dække over uenigheden
• paper round    avisudbringning, avistur
• paper shop    papirforretning
• paper tiger    papirtiger
• paper trail    skriftlig dokumentation af aktiviteter
• piece of paper    stykke papir

Nederlands (Dutch)
papier, krant, paper, proefwerk, behang, (mv) papieren, (mv) documenten, (houders van) vrijkaartjes, van papier, alleen bestaand op papier (theoretisch), behangen, in papier wikkelen/pakken, (theater) vullen door uitdelen vrijkaartjes

Français (French)
n. - papier, papier peint, journal, article (sur), communication (sur), exposé (sur), épreuve, (Fin) effet de commerce, livre (publication du gouvernement)
v. tr. - tapisser
adj. - en papier, théorique, sans valeur

idioms:

• not worth the paper it's written on    être sans aucune valeur
• on paper    sur papier
• paper boy    livreur/vendeur de journaux
• paper clip    trombone
• paper feed    (Comput) bac d'alimentation en papier
• paper knife    coupe-papier
• paper mill    papeterie
• paper money    papier-monnaie, monnaie fiduciaire
• paper over    recouvrir de papier, (fig) passer sur
• paper over the cracks    (fig) dissimuler les problèmes
• paper round    livrer des journaux, tournée de distribution des journaux
• paper shop    marchand de journaux
• paper tiger    (fig) tigre de papier
• paper trail    piste de papier
• piece of paper    morceau de papier

Deutsch (German)
n. - Papier, Tapete, Zeitung, Abhandlung, Referat, Klausur, Arbeit, Blatt Papier, Dokument, Unterlage
v. - tapezieren
adj. - Papier-, nominell

idioms:

• not worth the paper it's written on    nicht das Papier wert sein, auf dem es geschrieben steht
• on paper    schriftlich
• paper boy    Zeitungsjunge
• paper clip    Büroklammer
• paper feed    Papiertransport
• paper knife    Brieföffner
• paper mill    Papierfabrik
• paper money    Papiergeld
• paper over    mit Tapete überkleben
• paper over the cracks    die Unterschiede überspielen
• paper round    Zeitungenaustragen
• paper shop    Zeitungsgeschäft
• paper tiger    Papiertiger
• paper trail    Dokumente, die es ermögl., jmds. Aktivitäten zurückzuverfolgen
• piece of paper    Zettel

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - χαρτί, εφημερίδα, διατριβή, δοκίμιο, εργασία, ανακοίνωση, θέμα (γραπτής εξέτασης), (πληθ.) πιστοποιητικά, έγγραφα, ντοκουμέντα, (οικον.) αξιόγραφο
v. - τυλίγω, στολίζω ή καλύπτω με χαρτί, ταπετσάρω (τοίχους), (καθομ.) διανέμω δωρεάν θεατρικά εισιτήρια (για να γεμίσω την αίθουσα)
adj. - χάρτινος

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    ευτελέστατος, μηδαμινής αξίας
• on paper    στη θεωρία, στα χαρτιά
• paper boy    εφημεριδοπώλης
• paper clip    συνδετήρας (χαρτιών)
• paper feed    (Η/Υ) τροφοδότηση χαρτιού
• paper knife    χαρτοκόπτης
• paper mill    χαρτοποιία, χαρτοβιομηχανία
• paper money    (οικον.) χαρτονόμισμα
• paper over    αποκρύπτω κάτι δυσάρεστο
• paper over the cracks    (τα) ψευτομπαλώνω
• paper round    δρομολόγιο διανομέα εφημερίδων κατ' οίκον
• paper shop    μαγαζί που πουλά είδη φτιαγμένα από χαρτί
• paper tiger    χάρτινη τίγρη, ουσιαστικά ακίνδυνος αντίπαλος
• paper trail    γραφτά τεκμήρια της πορείας κάποιου
• piece of paper    κομμάτι χαρτί

Italiano (Italian)
tappezzare, incartare, insabbiare, carta, giornale, saggio, ricerca, conferenza, esame, foglio, documento, di carta

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    non vale nulla
• on paper    sulla carta
• paper boy    fattorino
• paper clip    fermacarte
• paper knife    tagliacarte
• paper mill    cartiera
• paper money    carta moneta
• paper over    nascondere
• paper round    distribuzione dei giornali
• paper shop    cartoleria
• paper tiger    tigre di carta
• piece of paper    pezzo di carta

Português (Portuguese)
n. - papel (m), artigo (m), exame (m), jornal (m), folha de papel (f), nota (f), promissória (f), documento (f)
v. - embrulhar, empapelar
adj. - de papel, fino, imaginário

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    não vale o papel em que foi escrito
• on paper    no papel
• paper boy    jornaleiro
• paper clip    clipe
• paper knife    abridor de cartas, espátula
• paper mill    fábrica de papel
• paper money    papel-moeda
• paper over    disfarçar, cobrir com papel
• paper round    enrolar com papel
• paper shop    papelaria
• paper tiger    objeto do qual se tem temor infundado
• paper trail    bandeja de papel
• piece of paper    pedaço de papel

Русский (Russian)
бумага, газета, статья, лист, обои, контрамарка, клеить обои

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    ничего не стоит
• on paper    на бумаге
• paper boy    разносчик газет
• paper clip    скрепка
• paper knife    нож для разрезания книг/конвертов
• paper mill    бумагоделательная фабрика
• paper money    бумажные деньги
• paper over    умолчать, обойти вниманием
• paper round    подшивка, маршрут разноса газет
• paper shop    газетный киоск
• paper tiger    мнимая угроза
• paper trail    след официальных документов
• piece of paper    лист бумаги

Español (Spanish)
n. - papel, papel de escribir, periódico, diario, tratado, ensayo, ponencia, artículo, discurso, comunicación, informe, prueba, evaluación, hoja de papel, pliego, documento, periodismo
v. tr. - empapelar, envolver, poner por escrito, pulir con papel de lija, dar entradas gratuitas
adj. - de papel, papelero, impreso en papel, en los papeles

idioms:

• not worth the paper it's written on    no vale para nada, no vale ni el papel en el que está escrito
• on paper    en papel, en teoría, a juzgar por las estadísticas
• paper boy    repartidor de periódicos
• paper clip    clip, sujetapapeles
• paper feed    dispositivo de alimentación de papel
• paper knife    abrecartas, cortapapeles
• paper mill    fábrica de papel, papelera
• paper money    papel moneda, billete de banco
• paper over    disimular, ocultar
• paper over the cracks    tapar agujeros, ponerle parches al problema
• paper round    reparto de periódicos
• paper shop    kiosco de periódicos
• paper tiger    tigre de papel
• paper trail    pruebas documentadas
• piece of paper    hoja, cuartilla

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - papper, ark, tidning, dokument, handling, uppsats, skriftligt prov, avhandling, föredrag, tapet, fribiljett, värdehandling
v. - tapetsera, ge ut fribiljetter
adj. - pappers-

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
纸, 试题, 答案, 试卷, 报纸, 论文, 报告, 用纸糊, 用纸包装, 贴壁纸于, 纸的, 纸制的, 纸上的, 有名无实的, 似纸的, 薄的

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    毫无价值
• on paper    以书面形式, 在名义上
• paper boy    卖报童, 送报童
• paper clip    纸夹
• paper feed    进纸口
• paper knife    裁纸刀
• paper mill    造纸厂
• paper money    纸币, 钞票
• paper over    用纸覆盖, 掩盖
• paper over the cracks    用纸覆盖, 掩盖
• paper round    送报活儿
• paper shop    纸店
• paper tiger    纸老虎, 外强中干者
• paper trail    在纸上记录
• piece of paper    一张纸

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 紙, 試題, 答案, 試卷, 報紙, 論文, 報告
v. tr. - 用紙糊, 用紙包裝, 貼壁紙於
adj. - 紙的, 紙製的, 紙上的, 有名無實的, 似紙的, 薄的

idioms:

• is not worth the paper it's written on    毫無價值
• on paper    以書面形式, 在名義上
• paper boy    賣報童, 送報童
• paper clip    紙夾
• paper feed    進紙口
• paper knife    裁紙刀
• paper mill    造紙廠
• paper money    紙幣, 鈔票
• paper over    用紙覆蓋, 掩蓋
• paper over the cracks    用紙覆蓋, 掩蓋
• paper round    送報活兒
• paper shop    紙店
• paper tiger    紙老虎, 外強中乾者
• paper trail    在紙上記錄
• piece of paper    一張紙

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 종이, 신문, 서류
v. tr. - 종이에 싸다, 벽지를 바르다, ~을 사포로 문지르다
adj. - 종이의, 취약한, 무료로 입장한

idioms:

• paper over    숨기다, 호도하다, 얼버무리다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 紙, 新聞, 研究論文, 論文, 書類, 資料, 壁紙, 答案, 試験問題, 紙幣, 手形
v. - 紙に包む, 壁紙をはる, 隠す

idioms:

• blotting paper    吸取紙, 吸取り紙
• on paper    紙上に, 統計上では
• paper boy    新聞配達人, 新聞売り子
• paper clip    紙用クリップ
• paper knife    ペーパーナイフ, 紙切りナイフ
• paper mill    製紙工場
• paper money    紙幣, 有価証券
• paper over    取りつくろう, 糊塗する
• paper over the cracks    失敗を隠す
• paper round    紙を回して記入する
• paper shop    新聞売りスタンド
• paper tiger    張子の虎
• paper trail    行動の証拠記録

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) ورقه, وثيقه, مقاله, بحث, حافظه ورقيه, صحيفه, جريدة, ورق جدران (فعل) يلف, يغلف, يورق (صفه) ورقي, مكتوب, مطبوع,‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮נייר, עיתון, חיבור, טפט, נייר-קיר, מבחן, שאלון, מסה, כרטיסי-חינם בתיאטרון‬
v. tr. - ‮הדביק טפטים (על קיר), ניסה להסתיר (שגיאה וכו'), מילא (תיאטרון) ע"י חלוקת כרטיסים (מדוברת)‬
adj. - ‮עשוי מנייר או מחומר דמוי-נייר, בעל תכונות של נייר, מודפס או כתוב על נייר, של דברים הכתובים על נייר, קיים תיאורטי‬

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