Peru

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Peru

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(pə-rū')

A country of western South America on the Pacific Ocean. Inhabited since at least the 9th millennium B.C., it was the center of an Incan empire established after the 12th century A.D. The Spanish under Pizarro conquered the empire in 1533 and set up in 1542 the viceroyalty of Peru, which at one time included Panama and all of Spanish South America except Venezuela. Peru achieved full independence from Spain in 1824. Lima is the capital and the largest city. Population: 28,700,000.

Peruvian Pe·ru'vi·an (-vē-ən) adj. & n.

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Despite periods of economic and political instability, and occasional severe earthquakes, Peru's photographic history is well documented, with large collections of historic photographs held either privately or in institutions like the Fototeca Andina in Cuzco. A significant influence on photographic practice has been the country's rapid modernization, creating extremes of wealth and poverty and exacerbating tensions between the Hispanic and mestizo population of the cities and the indigenous rural poor. The growth of tourism has also been significant, especially since the discovery of the remains of Machu Picchu in 1911, and Inca ruins, Andean views, and indigenous genre scenes have long been a staple commercial product.

Peruvian photography can best be examined under two headings: as part of the sophisticated, cosmopolitan culture of the capital, Lima, birthplace of the celebrity photographer Mario Testino (b. 1954); and in towns like the old Inca capital of Cuzco in the southern Andes, a centre of early 20th-century Indigenismo and the home of Martín Chambi, since his death in 1978 Latin America's most famous photographer.

As in other Latin American countries, foreigners played a leading role. A Frenchman, Maximiliano Danti, and an American, Benjamin Franklin Pease, founded two of the earliest Lima studios, the latter offering paintings as well as daguerreotypes. Another Frenchman, Eugenio Courret, established himself there in the early 1860s and created a thriving business, producing not only refined, rather Spanish-looking portraits of solid citizens, and rich little girls with their dolls, but urban views, architectural studies, and occasional scenes of political unrest. He maintained contact with European culture by exhibiting in numerous salons, and won a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. When he finally returned to France the business passed to another Frenchman and survived until 1935.

In the culturally more mixed southern city of Arequipa, the Vargas brothers, Carlos (1885-1979) and Miguel (1886-1979), opened a studio in 1912. They created thousands of portraits of Hispanic and indigenous clients, as well as theatrical and topical scenes and nocturnes. Their studio also functioned as a gallery, showing indigenista art, and the photographs of Chambi and another Cuzco-based photographer (and painter), Juan Miguel Figueroa-Aznar (1878-1951). The latter played an important part in the contemporary revival of Peruvian indigenous culture, but also married a bishop's niece and became a regular portraitist of the Catholic clergy. Chambi was much more closely and constantly involved with pre-Hispanic culture, being of indigenous origin himself. In addition to portraits of all kinds of people, his output was enormously varied, ranging from the earliest photographs of Machu Picchu to landscapes, social gatherings, and a sustained documentation of rural life and the traces of Inca culture. Particularly moving is a 1934 photograph of a pyramidal group of seven peasants and a straw-hatted infant reclining proudly on a pyramid of potatoes. Such pictures showed indigenous people as autonomous human beings rather than as merely ‘backward’ or ‘exotic’. In the same spirit was a late 20th-century initiative, Talleres de Fotografia Social (Social Photography Workshops), that supplied peasants with cameras and encouraged them to record their own lives.

Another important documentarist was Sebastián Rodríguez (1896-1968) who in 1923, after training in Lima, began working as an itinerant photographer in Peru's bleak mountain mining camps. In 1928 he settled in the town of Morococha, employed by the Cerro de Pasco mining company, and over 40 years created thousands of numbered identity photos, but also images of the miners' harsh working conditions, everyday lives, and funerals.

— Robin Lenman

Bibliography

• McElroy, K., The History of Photography in Peru in the Nineteenth Century, 1839-1976 (2 vols., 1977).
• Billeter, E., Fotografie Lateinamerika von 1860 bis heute (1981).
• Poole, D., ‘Figueroa Aznar and the Cuzco Indigenistas: Photography and Modernism in Early Twentieth Century Peru’, Representations, 38 (1992).
• Castro, F., The Frayed Twine of Modernity: Photography in the Southern Andes of Peru, 1900-1939 (1992).
• Watriss, W., and Zamora, L. P. (eds.), Image and Memory: Photography from Latin America, 1866-1994 (1998)

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The first reference to psychoanalysis in Peru dates from a thesis presented in 1914. The following year, Honorio Delgado published an article on the new discipline in the country's most important daily. In 1918 he and Hermilio Valdizán founded the Revista de psiquiatría y disciplinas conexas (Review of psychiatry and associated disciplines), the first mouthpiece for psychoanalysis in Latin America. In 1919 he wrote the first Spanish work on the subject. That same year he received a letter from Freud, the first in an epistolary exchange that was to last until 1934.

Although Freud was interested in enlisting Delgado—whom he cited as an example of his influence in Spanish-speaking countries, and whose articles and reports appeared in Imago, the Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse, Psychoanalytic Review and the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis—the Peruvian physician, on the other hand, manifested some reticence. He attended the Berlin Congress on Freud's invitation. He arrived late but nevertheless managed to meet the founder of psychoanalysis. In 1926 Delgado published Freud's biography and paid homage to him in the National Academy of Medicine. Paradoxically, in 1927, just as he was beginning to manifest a much more critical attitude, he was made a member of the British Psychoanalytic Society (BPS), attended the Innsbruck congress, and visited Freud at Semmering.

Having been a major figure in Peruvian psychiatry for more than thirty years, Delgado changed position from that of an exponent to that of a detractor. He was the architect behind the enthusiastic welcome that psychoanalysis received in the 1920s, when the discipline was introduced into psychiatry lectures and when the most important reviews published translations of Freudian texts—in 1926 one of them devoted an entire issue to Freud and psychoanalysis. José Carlos Mariátegui, the most eminent Peruvian thinker of the 20th century and founder of the Peruvian Communist Party, devoted an article to psychoanalysis as well as a chapter in one of his books. In 1929, one year before his premature death, he wrote a psychoanalytically informed article on literature.

Delgado's opposition in the 1930s was an obstacle to the expansion of the psychoanalytic movement, which was suspended for another four decades. With the exception of some isolated articles and a few theses, the psychiatric milieu lost all interest in the discipline. It disappeared from the scene for several years, until reintroduced through the influence of Carlos Alberto Seguin. The science journalist, Oscar Miró Quesada (RACSO), nevertheless devoted several articles to Freud and psychoanalysis, as well as a book in 1937.

In 1940 Seguin published a book in Buenos Aires on Freud. He later went into analysis and frequented the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. For many years he was director of the first psychiatry department attached to a general hospital in Latin America and contributed to promoting dynamic psychiatry and psychosomatic medicine on psychoanalytic bases. He was president of the psychoanalytic section of the Peruvian committee at the first World Congress on Psychiatry. His influence was of major importance: ninety percent of psychiatrist members of the Peruvian Psychoanalytic Society studied under him.

Saúl Peña's return to Peru in 1969 marked the beginning of active work in university and clinical circles, which continued with the returns of Carlos Crisanto in 1973 and Max Hernández in 1974, the year of the foundation of the Center for the Development of Psychoanalysis. In 1979 the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA) recognized this institution as a provisional study group and appointed a sponsoring committee which admitted the three analysts as training analysts and selected the first candidates.

Founded in 1980, the Peruvian Psychoanalytic Society was accepted as a study group in 1981. Peña, Crisanto, Hernández and the new sponsors made up the joint training committee of the brand new Peruvian Institute of Psycho-analysis. In 1985 the group acquired the status of a provisional society and that of a member society in 1987.

With Sara Flores as president, the Society had forty-eightassociate and full members as of 2004, to which we must add the twenty-two candidates and students from the Institute directed by Jorge Kantor, and the eleven candidates from the seventh group to begin training. The many influences from psychoanalysts trained abroad and the foreign personages associated with the society have contributed to representing very different schools (British-independent and Anna Freud, East and West Coast United States, Argentina, France, and Frankfurt).

The society has organized and/or sponsored eight national congresses and other events, mainly international and inter-disciplinary, which have contributed to forging a role in cultural life for psychoanalysis as well as having an influence on artists, specialists in the social sciences, educators, historians, writers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. The 1998 international conference "On the Threshold of the Millennium" and "At the End of the Battle" (2001), both co-sponsoredby the IPA and UNESCO, also aroused the interest of politicians, economists, captains of industry, diplomats, and the general public.

Since 2001 the most prestigious private university of the country has a Master's Program in Psychoanalytic Theoretical Studies, organized by Max Hernández and Moisés Lemlij, whose second class is about to graduate. Also the most widely read weekly in the country has a column presenting a psychoanalytic point of view and a psychoanalyst heads a radio program where people seek advice and consultation.

Max Hernández is one of the leading intellectuals in contemporary Peru and a major personality in the Peruvian Society. His influence extends beyond the discipline and his contributions have been rewarded with the Sigourney prize. During his presidency of the FEPAL, Saúl Peña, the first president and honorary president of the Peruvian society, organized the first Latin American Congress of Child and Adolescent Psychoanalysis and presented the contributions of Latin American psychoanalysis in the form of various publications.

César Rodríguez Rabanal, a former member of the Peruvian Society and an important leader of opinion, made a renowned contribution on the subject of how to approach marginalized and under-privileged populations. As an active promoter on an international level of culture in general and psychoanalysis in particular, Moisés Lemlij has twice been vice-president and treasurer of the IPA.Álvaro Rey de Castro, current President of FePAL, stands out for his active participation in the war against corruption .

The main psychoanalytically-informed institutions in Peru are: the Center for Psychosocial Development and Counseling (1976), the Lima Center for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapies (1983), the Association for Child Psychotherapy (1986), the Center for Psychoanalysis and Society (1986), the Interdisciplinary Seminar on Andean Studies (1987), the Center for Human Development and Creativity (1995), the Center for the Development of Art Therapy (1997), and the School of Applied Clinical Psychotherapy (1999). The Lacanian movement is still at an embryonic stage.

The leading works are published by the Biblioteca Peruana de Psicoanálisis and the Fondo Editorial SIDEA. Directed by Moisés Lemlij, these publishing centers have together published more than thirty works sice the early 1990s. Also worthy of note is the Libro anual de psicoanálisis (Annual book of psychoanalysis), published by Gustavo Delgado (The Peruvian Society publishes a journal, Psicoanálisis, every two years).

Bibliography

Delgado, Honorio. (1989). Freud y el psicoanálisis. (J. Mariátegui, Comp.). Lima: University Cayetano Heredia.

Hernández, Max. (1992). Memoria del bien perdido. Identidad, conflicto y nostalgia en el Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. Lima: Instituto de estudios peruanos y biblioteca peruana de psicoanálisis.

Hernández, Max, et al. (1996). Entre el mito y la historia. 3d. ed. Lima,:Fondo Sidea. (Original work published 1987)

Rey de Castro,Álvaro. (1991). Freud y Honorio Delgado: una aproximación psicoanalítica a la prehistoria del psicoanálisis peruano y sus escuelas, el múltiple interés del psicoanálisis-77 años después. (p. 203-237). Talleres de Artes Gráficas Espino.

Rodríguez, Rabanal César. (1989). Cicatrices de la pobreza. Caracas, Venezuela : Nueva Sociedad.

—MOISÉS LEMLIJ

Republic in western South America, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west, Ecuador to the northwest, Colombia to the northeast, Brazil and Bolivia to the east, and Chile to the south. Its capital and largest city is Lima.

• Achieved independence from Spain in 1821.
• Peru was the heart of the Inca Empire, which flourished from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries. The remains of the empire include the fabled stone fortress of Machu Picchu.

The international dialing code for Peru is:   51

It is 5:07 PM, February 9, in Peru.

Peruvian Nuevo Sol

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Background:

Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824. After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in 1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity. Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. A caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001, which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO Manrique as the new head of government - Peru's first democratically elected president of Native American ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of Alan GARCIA Perez who, after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, has overseen a robust macroeconomic performance.

Location:	Western South America, bordering the South Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador
Geographic coordinates:	10 00 S, 76 00 W
Map references:	South America
Area:	total: 1,285,220 sq km land: 1.28 million sq km water: 5,220 sq km
Area - comparative:	slightly smaller than Alaska
Land boundaries:	total: 7,461 km border countries: Bolivia 1,075 km, Brazil 2,995 km, Chile 171 km, Colombia 1,800 km, Ecuador 1,420 km
Coastline:	2,414 km
Maritime claims:	territorial sea: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm
Climate:	varies from tropical in east to dry desert in west; temperate to frigid in Andes
Terrain:	western coastal plain (costa), high and rugged Andes in center (sierra), eastern lowland jungle of Amazon Basin (selva)
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Nevado Huascaran 6,768 m
Natural resources:	copper, silver, gold, petroleum, timber, fish, iron ore, coal, phosphate, potash, hydropower, natural gas
Land use:	arable land: 2.88% permanent crops: 0.47% other: 96.65% (2005)
Irrigated land:	12,000 sq km (2003)
Total renewable water resources:	1,913 cu km (2000)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):	total: 20.13 cu km/yr (8%/10%/82%) per capita: 720 cu m/yr (2000)
Natural hazards:	earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, landslides, mild volcanic activity
Environment - current issues:	deforestation (some the result of illegal logging); overgrazing of the slopes of the costa and sierra leading to soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Lima; pollution of rivers and coastal waters from municipal and mining wastes
Environment - international agreements:	party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note:	shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake, with Bolivia; a remote slope of Nevado Mismi, a 5,316 m peak, is the ultimate source of the Amazon River

Population:	29,546,963 (July 2009 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 29.1% (male 4,370,923/female 4,216,364) 15-64 years: 65.2% (male 9,695,270/female 9,574,018) 65 years and over: 5.7% (male 796,631/female 893,757) (2009 est.)
Median age:	total: 26.1 years male: 25.8 years female: 26.4 years (2009 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.229% (2009 est.)
Birth rate:	19.38 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate:	6.16 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate:	-0.95 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Urbanization:	urban population: 71% of total population (2008) rate of urbanization: 1.3% annual rate of change (2005-10 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 28.62 deaths/1,000 live births male: 31.07 deaths/1,000 live births female: 26.06 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 70.74 years male: 68.88 years female: 72.69 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate:	2.37 children born/woman (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:	0.5% (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:	76,000 (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths:	3,300 (2007 est.)
Major infectious diseases:	degree of risk: very high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne disease: dengue fever, malaria, and yellow fever water contact disease: leptospirosis (2009)
Nationality:	noun: Peruvian(s) adjective: Peruvian
Ethnic groups:	Amerindian 45%, mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white) 37%, white 15%, black, Japanese, Chinese, and other 3%
Religions:	Roman Catholic 81.3%, Evangelical 12.5%, other 3.3%, unspecified or none 2.9% (2007 Census)
Languages:	Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara, and a large number of minor Amazonian languages
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.9% male: 96.4% female: 89.4% (2007 Census)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):	total: 14 years male: 14 years female: 14 years (2006)
Education expenditures:	2.5% of GDP (2006)

Country name:	conventional long form: Republic of Peru conventional short form: Peru local long form: Republica del Peru local short form: Peru
Government type:	constitutional republic
Capital:	name: Lima geographic coordinates: 12 03 S, 77 03 W time difference: UTC-5 (same time as Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:	25 regions (regiones, singular - region) and 1 province* (provincia); Amazonas, Ancash, Apurimac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Callao, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huanuco, Ica, Junin, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Lima, Lima*, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Moquegua, Pasco, Piura, Puno, San Martin, Tacna, Tumbes, Ucayali
Independence:	28 July 1821 (from Spain)
National holiday:	Independence Day, 28 July (1821)
Constitution:	29 December 1993
Legal system:	based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal and compulsory until the age of 70; note - for the first time in recent elections, members of the military and national police were eligible to vote in the 2006 elections
Executive branch:	chief of state: President Alan GARCIA Perez (since 28 July 2006); First Vice President Luis GIAMPIETRI Rojas (since 28 July 2006); Second Vice President Lourdes MENDOZA del Solar (since 28 July 2006); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Alan GARCIA Perez (since 28 July 2006); First Vice President Luis GIAMPIETRI Rojas (since 28 July 2006); Second Vice President Lourdes MENDOZA del Solar (since 28 July 2006) note: Prime Minister Yehude SIMON Munaro (since 14 October 2008) does not exercise executive power; this power is in the hands of the president cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term (eligible for a nonconsecutive reelection); presidential and congressional elections held 9 April 2006 with runoff election held 4 June 2006; next to be held in April 2011 election results: Alan GARCIA Perez elected president in runoff election; percent of vote - Alan GARCIA Perez 52.5%, Ollanta HUMALA Tasso 47.5%
Legislative branch:	unicameral Congress of the Republic of Peru or Congreso de la Republica del Peru (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: last held 9 April 2006 (next to be held in April 2011) election results: percent of vote by party - UPP 21.2%, PAP 20.6%, UN 15.3%, AF 13.1%, FC 7.1%, PP 4.1%, RN 4.0%, other 14.6%; seats by party - UPP 45, PAP 36, UN 17, AF 13, FC 5, PP 2, RN 2
Judicial branch:	Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia (judges are appointed by the National Council of the Judiciary)
Political parties and leaders:	Alliance For Progress (Alianza Para El Progreso) [Cesar ACUNA Peralta]; Alliance For The Future (Alianza Por El Futuro) or AF (a coalition of pro-FUJIMORI parties including Cambio 90, Nueva Mayoria, and Si Cumple); Central Front (Frente Del Centro) or FC (a coalition of Accion Popular, Somos Peru, and Coordinadora Nacional de Independientes) [Victor Andres GARCIA Belaunde]; National Renovation Party (Partido Renovacion Nacional) [Rafael REY]; National Restoration Party (Restauracion Nacional) or RN [Humberto LAY Sun]; National Solidarity Party (Partido Solidaridad Nacional) or SN [Luis CASTANEDA Lossio]; Peru Possible (Peru Posible) or PP [Alejandro TOLEDO Manrique]; Peruvian Aprista Party (Partido Aprista Peruano) or PAP [Alan GARCIA Perez] (also referred to by its original name Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana or APRA); Peruvian Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Peruano) or PNP [Ollanta HUMALA Tasso]; Popular Christian Party (Partido Popular Cristiano) or PPC [Lourdes FLORES Nano]; Union for Peru (Union por el Peru) or UPP [Aldo ESTRADA Choque]
Political pressure groups and leaders:	General Workers Confederation of Peru (Confederacion General de Trabajadores del Peru) or CGTP [Mario HUAMAN]; Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) or SL [Abimael GUZMAN Reynoso (imprisoned), Victor QUISPE Palomino (top leader at-large)] (leftist guerrilla group)
International organization participation:	APEC, CAN, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MIGA, MINUSTAH, MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNASUR, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador Luis VALDIVIESO Montano chancery: 1700 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 833-9860 through 9869 FAX: [1] (202) 659-8124 consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Hartford, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Paterson (New Jersey), San Francisco, Washington, DC
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador P. Michael MCKINLEY embassy: Avenida La Encalada, Cuadra 17s/n, Surco, Lima 33 mailing address: P. O. Box 1995, Lima 1; American Embassy (Lima), APO AA 34031-5000 telephone: [51] (1) 434-3000 FAX: [51] (1) 618-2397
Flag description:	three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), white, and red with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a shield bearing a vicuna, cinchona tree (the source of quinine), and a yellow cornucopia spilling out gold coins, all framed by a green wreath

Economy - overview:	Peru's economy reflects its varied geography - an arid coastal region, the Andes further inland, and tropical lands bordering Colombia and Brazil. Abundant mineral resources are found in the mountainous areas, and Peru's coastal waters provide excellent fishing grounds. The Peruvian economy grew by more than 4% per year during the period 2002-06, with a stable exchange rate and low inflation. Growth jumped to 9% per year in 2007 and 2008, driven by higher world prices for minerals and metals and the government's aggressive trade liberalization strategies. Peru's rapid expansion has helped to reduce the national poverty rate by about 15% since 2002, though underemployment and inflation remain high. Despite Peru's strong macroeconomic performance, overdependence on minerals and metals subjects the economy to fluctuations in world prices, and poor infrastructure precludes the spread of growth to Peru's non-coastal areas. Not all Peruvians therefore have shared in the benefits of growth. President GARCIA's pursuit of sound trade and macroeconomic policies has cost him political support since his election. Nevertheless, he remains committed to Peru's free-trade path. The United States and Peru completed negotiations on the implementation of the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA), and the agreement entered into force February 1, 2009, opening the way to greater trade and investment between the two economies.
GDP (purchasing power parity):	$238.9 billion (2008 est.) $218.8 billion (2007) $206.6 billion (2006) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP (official exchange rate):	$131.4 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:	9.2% (2008 est.) 9% (2007 est.) 7.6% (2006 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):	$8,400 (2008 est.) $7,800 (2007 est.) $7,300 (2006 est.) note: data are in 2008 US dollars
GDP - composition by sector:	agriculture: 8.5% industry: 21.2% services: 70.3% (2008 est.)
Labor force:	10.2 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:	agriculture: 0.7% industry: 23.8% services: 75.5% (2005)
Unemployment rate:	8.4% in metropolitan Lima; widespread underemployment (2008 est.)
Population below poverty line:	44.5% (2006)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: 1.3% highest 10%: 40.9% (2003)
Distribution of family income - Gini index:	49.8 (2005)
Investment (gross fixed):	24.4% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $38.83 billion expenditures: $35.5 billion (2008 est.)
Fiscal year:	calendar year
Public debt:	24.1% of GDP (2008 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	6.7% (2008 est.)
Central bank discount rate:	6.5% (December 2008)
Commercial bank prime lending rate:	24.1% (December 2008)
Stock of money:	$14.66 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money:	$19.95 billion (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit:	$17.88 billion (31 December 2007)
Market value of publicly traded shares:	$57.23 billion (31 July 2008)
Agriculture - products:	asparagus, coffee, cocoa, cotton, sugarcane, rice, potatoes, corn, plantains, grapes, oranges, pineapples, guavas, bananas, apples, lemons, pears, coca, tomatoes, mango, barley, medicinal plants, palm oil, marigold, onion, wheat, dry beans; poultry, beef, dairy products; fish, guinea pigs
Industries:	mining and refining of minerals; steel, metal fabrication; petroleum extraction and refining, natural gas; fishing and fish processing, textiles, clothing, food processing
Industrial production growth rate:	4.5% (2008 est.)
Electricity - production:	30.57 billion kWh (2008 est.)
Electricity - consumption:	28.97 billion kWh (2008 est.)
Electricity - exports:	0 kWh (2008 est.)
Electricity - imports:	0 kWh (2008 est.)
Electricity - production by source:	fossil fuel: 14.5% hydro: 84.7% nuclear: 0% other: 0.8% (2001)
Oil - production:	110,800 bbl/day (2008 est.)
Oil - consumption:	170,000 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - exports:	27,390 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - imports:	109,000 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - proved reserves:	930 million bbl (1 January 2008 est.)
Natural gas - production:	3.4 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:	3.4 billion cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - exports:	0 cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - imports:	0 cu m (2008 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:	334.7 billion cu m (1 January 2008 est.)
Current account balance:	-$3.631 billion (2008 est.)
Exports:	$33.27 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports - commodities:	copper, gold, zinc, crude petroleum and petroleum products, coffee, potatoes, asparagus, textiles, fishmeal
Exports - partners:	US 19.5%, China 12.7%, Canada 7.6%, Japan 7.5%, Chile 5.9%, Switzerland 4.2%, Spain 4.1% (2007)
Imports:	$29.08 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports - commodities:	petroleum and petroleum products, plastics, machinery, vehicles, iron and steel, wheat, paper
Imports - partners:	US 20.5%, China 10.8%, Brazil 9%, Ecuador 6.1%, Argentina 5.6%, Chile 5%, Colombia 4.8% (2007)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:	$31.79 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Debt - external:	$35.46 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:	$32.14 billion (2008 est.)
Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:	$1.476 billion (2008 est.)
Currency (code):	nuevo sol (PEN)
Currency code:	PEN
Exchange rates:	nuevo sol (PEN) per US dollar - 2.91 (2008 est.), 3.1731 (2007), 3.2742 (2006), 3.2958 (2005), 3.4132 (2004)

Telephones - main lines in use:	2.673 million (2007)
Telephones - mobile cellular:	15.417 million (2007)
Telephone system:	general assessment: adequate for most requirements domestic: fixed-line teledensity is only about 9 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular teledensity, spurred by competition among multiple providers, has increased to roughly 55 telephones per 100 persons; nationwide microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations international: country code - 51; the South America-1 (SAM-1) and Pan American (PAN-AM) submarine cable systems provide links to parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and US; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 472, FM 198, shortwave 189 (1999)
Radios:	6.65 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:	13 (plus 112 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions:	3.06 million (1997)
Internet country code:	.pe
Internet hosts:	271,745 (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):	10 (2000)
Internet users:	7.636 million (2007)

Airports:	202 (2008)
Airports - with paved runways:	total: 56 over 3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15 914 to 1,523 m: 11 under 914 m: 4 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:	total: 146 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 24 914 to 1,523 m: 39 under 914 m: 81 (2008)
Heliports:	1 (2007)
Pipelines:	extra heavy crude 533 km; gas 1,078 km; liquid petroleum gas 654 km; oil 1,018 km; refined products 15 km (2008)
Railways:	total: 1,989 km standard gauge: 1,726 km 1.435-m gauge narrow gauge: 263 km 0.914-m gauge (2006)
Roadways:	total: 78,829 km paved: 11,351 km (includes 276 km of expressways) unpaved: 67,478 km (2004)
Waterways:	8,808 km note: 8,600 km of navigable tributaries of Amazon system and 208 km of Lago Titicaca (2008)
Merchant marine:	total: 8 by type: cargo 3, chemical tanker 1, petroleum tanker 4 foreign-owned: 1 (Bahamas 1) registered in other countries: 17 (Belize 1, Panama 16) (2008)
Ports and terminals:	Callao, Iquitos, Matarani, Paita, Pucallpa, Yurimaguas; note - Iquitos, Pucallpa, and Yurimaguas are on the upper reaches of the Amazon and its tributaries

Military branches:	Army of Peru (Ejercito Peruano), Navy of Peru (Marina de Guerra del Peru, MGP (includes naval air, naval infantry, and Coast Guard)), Air Force of Peru (Fuerza Aerea del Peru, FAP) (2008)
Military service age and obligation:	18-30 years of age for voluntary male and female military service; no conscription (2008)
Manpower available for military service:	males age 16-49: 7,653,898 females age 16-49: 7,531,329 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:	males age 16-49: 5,920,716 females age 16-49: 6,359,803 (2009 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:	male: 310,575 female: 300,838 (2009 est.)
Military expenditures:	1.5% of GDP (2006)

Disputes - international:	Chile and Ecuador rejected Peru's November 2005 unilateral legislation to shift the axis of their joint treaty-defined maritime boundaries along the parallels of latitude to equidistance lines which favor Peru; organized illegal narcotics operations in Colombia have penetrated Peru's shared border; Peru rejects Bolivia's claim to restore maritime access through a sovereign corridor through Chile along the Peruvian border
Refugees and internally displaced persons:	IDPs: 60,000-150,000 (civil war from 1980-2000; most IDPs are indigenous peasants in Andean and Amazonian regions) (2007)
Illicit drugs:	until 1996 the world's largest coca leaf producer, Peru is now the world's second largest producer of coca leaf, though it lags far behind Colombia; cultivation of coca in Peru declined to 36,000 hectares in 2007; second largest producer of cocaine, estimated at 210 metric tons of potential pure cocaine in 2007; finished cocaine is shipped out from Pacific ports to the international drug market; increasing amounts of base and finished cocaine, however, are being moved to Brazil, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia for use in the Southern Cone or transshipment to Europe and Africa; increasing domestic drug consumption

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Recipes

Baked Papas (Potato) Skins
Palta Aji Sauce (Avocado Chili Sauce)
Picarones (Pumpkin Fritters)
Choclo con Queso (Corn on the Cob with Cheese)
Frozen Orange Delight
Flan
Papas a la Huancaína (Potatoes with Cheese)
Ceviche (Marinated Seafood)
Arroz con Leche (Rice and Milk)

Geographic Setting and Environment

Peru is South America's third-largest country, with an area of 496,226 square miles (1,285,220 square kilometers), slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. Peru is divided into three contrasting topographical regions: the coast, the Andean highlands, and the Amazon rainforest to the east, with 18 rivers and 200 tributaries. The Peruvian Andes are divided into three chains. The western mountain chain runs parallel to the coast and forms the Peruvian continental divide. Less regular are the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental. Lake Titicaca (Lago Titicaca), the highest navigable lake in the world (about 12,500 feet/3,800 meters high), lies partly in Peru and partly in Bolivia.

History and Food

The first inhabitants of Peru are believed to have migrated from Asia around 6000 B.C. These early nomadic (roaming) tribesmen relied on the hunting of animals and the gathering of fruits and plants to survive. By 5000 B.C., small communities were established and the early cultivation of cotton, chili peppers, beans, squash, and maize (similar to corn) began. Most of the early settlers lived near the coast, where the wet climate allowed for planted seeds to grow.

One of the world's most popular vegetables, papas (potatoes), were first grown in Peru. The earliest remains of potatoes have been discovered at archeological sites in southern and eastern Peru, dating as far back as 400 B.C. However, it was not until the 1400s that Europeans first came in contact with the potato. They took the vegetable back to Europe, where it was slow to gain acceptance. Europe now cultivates the largest number of potatoes, but Peru continues to produce the largest potato varieties and has been referred to as the "Potato Capital of the World." Potatoes were not the only vegetable in ancient Peru, however. Avocado pits have been discovered buried with mummies dating as far back as 750 B.C.

The Incas came to power in the 1400s. They survived mostly on maize and potatoes that they planted on terraces that they carved out of steep hillsides (which can still be seen today). Their empire was short-lived, however. In 1528, the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro discovered Peru and was intrigued by the riches of the Inca Empire. The Spanish helped to introduce chicken, pork, and lamb to the Incas. In return, the Incas introduced the Spanish to a wide variety of potatoes and aji (chili peppers). As the Spanish gained control, they demanded that the natives grow such European crops as wheat, barley, beans, and carrots. As European disease struck the Incas and a shortage of labor arose, slaves from Africa were brought over to work on the new plantations. Africans contributed such foods as picarones (anise-sweetened, deep-fried pastries made from a pumpkin dough), to the Peruvian cuisine, as did Polynesians from the Pacific Islands, the Chinese, and the Japanese.

See Baked Papas (Potato) Skins recipe.

See Palta Aji Sauce (Avocado Chili Sauce) recipe.

See Picarones (Pumpkin Fritters) recipe.

Foods of the Peruvians

The Peruvian cuisine largely consists of spicy dishes that originated as a blend of Spanish and indigenous foods. Such dishes are often referred to as Criolla, or Creole. Aji (chili) is the most popular spice in Peru and is used in a variety of ways to give food extra flavor. Mint, oregano, basil, parsley, and cilantro are also included in Peruvian dishes, particularly soups and stews. Aside from spices, however, potatoes, rice, beans, fish, and various grains are essential staples (foods eaten nearly everyday) in the Peruvian diet.

Peru's unique variety of climates and landscapes has helped to make the Peruvian menus some of the most diverse in South America. Such geographical variety gives Peru distinct culinary regions that are divided into coastal, mountainous/highland, and tropical. In addition, the impact of various ethnic influences can be seen through indigenous (native), Spanish, Asian, and African cooking styles and dishes.

The Pacific Ocean provides Peru with a wide variety of seafood, particularly for those who live near the coast. Ceviche—fish, shrimp, scallops, or squid marinated in a lime and pepper mixture—might be considered one of the country's national dishes, due to its overwhelming popularity. It is often served with corn-on-the-cob, cancha (toasted corn), or sweet potatoes. Salads in this region are also common, particularly huevos a la rusa (egg salad) and palta rellena (stuffed avocado).

The mountainous/highland diet closely resembles food the Incas prepared hundreds of years ago. Basic staples of potatoes, corn, rice, and various meats (especially beef and pork) are common ingredients in the highland cuisine. Choclo con queso (corn on the cob with cheese) and tamales (meat-filled corn dumplings) are popular corn dishes. Lechón (suckling pig), cuy (guinea pig), chicharrones (deep-fried pork and chicken), and pachamanca (meat cooked over a hot stone pit) are common meat dishes in this area. Soups containing an abundance of spices, onions, and eggs, as well as freshly caught fish from Lake Titicaca (particularly trout), help satisfy the highlanders' appetites.

Meats and fresh fruits and vegetables are the basis of the tropical Peruvian diet. Bananas, plantains (similar to the banana), and yucca (similar to a yam) are readily available, and therefore are eaten in great quantities. Inhabitants of the tropical region also enjoy a variety of fish, wild game (such as boars, monkeys, pigs, deer, and chickens), and plenty of rice.

See Choclo con Queso (Corn on the Cob with Cheese) recipe.

See Frozen Orange Delight recipe.

Food for Religious and Holiday Celebrations

As a result of Peru's heavy Spanish influence, most Peruvians (90 percent) are devout Catholics. Christian holidays such as Easter, Christmas, and All Saints' Day are joyously celebrated throughout the country, often with fireworks, bullfights, dancing, and roast pig. The remainder of the population adheres to indigenous beliefs, believing in the gods and spirits the Incas once did hundreds of years ago. Many Christian holidays coincide with existing traditional festivals, allowing most Peruvians, regardless of differences in beliefs, to celebrate together.

Christmas brings great joy to the Christians of Peru, especially children who await the arrival of Santa Claus. Families use the holiday time to travel to the homes of family and close friends. Because of the number of people rushing about through Peru's streets, vendors rush to sell holiday foods and other goods to passing people. Sweet mango juice, bakery rolls, and homemade doughnuts coated with sugar and syrup are Christmas favorites. Flan, caramel custard enjoyed throughout Central and South American countries (as well as Spain, the Philippines, and the United States), is also a dessert enjoyed by Peruvians.

See Flan recipe.

See Papas a la Huancaína (Potatoes with Cheese) recipe.

Mealtime Customs

Peruvians are extremely hospitable and enjoy preparing and eating meals with company. Guests often consider being invited for dinner as a semiformal occasion. Nice clothes are worn and a small gift of flowers, chocolates, or wine is offered to the host on such occasions.

Most of the time, however, Peruvians simply prepare meals for themselves. Meals consumed by a typical village family often depend on the altitude of their village and what crops can thrive there. People living in mountainous areas can grow potatoes and select grains, as well as raise llamas, sheep, goats, and cattle. At lower altitudes, fruits and vegetables such as lemons, limes, palta (avocados), and aji (chilies) can be cultivated.

Villagers are often responsible for their own land and must spend much of the day tending to it. As a result, a villager's day begins early, usually around dawn. The woman of the house will begin her day preparing an herbal tea called mate (MAH-tay) and various foods for her family. A light desayuno (breakfast) may include triangular-shaped rolls, roasted wheat kernels, mote (boiled dried corn), bread, andte (tea) or cafe (coffee). The main meal of the day is almuerzo (lunch), which the woman of the house typically begins preparing while her family eats desayuno in the early morning. Almuerzo is important so workers will not be hungry in the fields. It may consist of a thick broth of potatoes, corn, and barley, palta aji sauce (avocado chili sauce) with vegetables, and cool beverages. Adults may enjoy chicha, a beer made of fermented maize, while children might prefer jugos (fruit juice), gaseosa (soft drink), or hot cocoa.

Cena (dinner) is often the most filling, despite almuerzo typically being the main meal of the day. Potatoes will almost always make up one of the two to three dishes served for cena. Mote (boiled dried corn) with meat or the popular ceviche (marinated seafood) may complete lunch or dinner. Children may drink chicha morada (a soft drink made from maize) as a refreshing accompaniment to most meals.

Peruvians enjoy sweets, whether it is an extra-sweet soft drink or honey-filled dessert. Churro, a deep-fried, honey-filled pastry, revolución caliente (crunchy, spicy cookies), and arroz con leche (rice and milk) are sold by street vendors throughout the country. Shish kebabs, seafood, fruit juice, empanadas (meat- or cheese-filled pies), and other popular Peruvian fare are also sold by vendors.

Many Peruvian children do not eat at midday during school hours. However, a combination of mote, noodles, beans, and potatoes is commonly eaten among school children.

See Ceviche (Marinated Seafood) recipe.

See Arroz con Leche (Rice and Milk) recipe.

Politics, Economics, and Nutrition

About 19 percent of the population of Peru are classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 8 percent are underweight, and over one-quarter are stunted (short for their age).

In a 1992–1993 census, it was found that nearly 22 percent of children aged 4-years-old and younger suffered from a serious Vitamin A deficiency. A lack of this vitamin can lead to blindness. In addition, iodine deficiencies have caused nearly one-third of school age children to develop goiter, an inflammation of the thyroid gland (usually in the neck). Protein deficiencies are declining, thanks to the introduction of high-protein maize, according to the United States Mission to the European Union. High levels of protein can prevent malnourishment in children growing up in developing nations, such as Peru. Organizations such as PROKID (also known as Help for Poor Peruvian Children) are helping to make a difference. Established in October 2000, one of the goals of the organization is to educate mothers about the nutritional needs of their children.

Further Study

Books

Falconer, Kieran. Peru: Cultures of the World. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1995.

King, David C. Peru: Lost Cities, Found Hopes. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Benchmark Books, 1998.

Peru. 4^th ed. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty. Ltd., 2000.

Peru Handbook. 2^nd ed. Bath, England: Footprint Handbooks, 1999.

The Rough Guide to Peru. 3^rd ed. London: Rough Guides Ltd., 1997.

Traveler's Peru Companion. Old Saybrook, CT: The Globe Pequot Press, 1999.

Web Sites

Authentic Peruvian Cuisine. [Online] Available http://www.thaiperurestaurant.com/Peru-SIDE.html (accessed April 18, 2001).

Christmas in Peru. [Online] Available http://www.christmas.com/pe/1504 (accessed April 18, 2001).

LAPA (Latin American Parents Association). [Online] Available http://www.lapa.com/recetas.htm (accessed April 19, 2001).

Peru: The Land of the Incas. [Online] Available http://members.tripod.com/~texcolca1/body/peru.html (accessed April 18, 2001).

The WorldSchool 2000: Peru. [Online] Available http://www.worldhop.com/worldschool2000/journal/peru.html (accessed April 18, 2001).

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CORO
Somos libres, seámoslo siempre,
Y antes niegue sus luces el Sol,
Que faltemos al voto solemne
Que la Patria al Eterno elevó.

I ESTROFA
Largo tiempo el peruano oprimido la ominosa cadena arrastró,
condenado a cruel servidumbre largo tiempo en silencio gimió.
Mas apenas el grito sagrado ¡ Libertad en sus costas se oyó, !
la indolencia de esclavo sacude, la humillada cerviz levantó.

II ESTROFA
Ya el estruendo de broncas cadenas que escuchamos tre siglos de horror,
que los libres al grito sagrado que oyó atónito el mundo, cesó.
Por doquier San Martín inflamado, libertad, libertad, pronunció,
y meciendo su base los Andes la anunciaron, también, a una voz.

III ESTROFA
Con su influjo los pueblos despiertan y cual rayo corrió la opinión;
desde el istmo a las tierras del fuego desde el fuego a la helada región.
Todos juran romper el enlace que natura a ambos mundos negó,
y quebrar ese cetro que España reclinaba orgullosa en los dos.

IV ESTROFA
Lima cumple ese voto solemne, y, severa, su enojo mostró,
al tirano impotente lanzando, que intentaba alargar su opresión.
A su esfuerzo saltaron los grillos y los surcos que en si reparó,
le atizaron el odio y venganza que heredera de su Inca y Señor.

V ESTROFA
¡ Compatriotas, no más verla esclava si humillada tres siglos gimió, !
para siempre jurémosla libre manteniendo su propio esplendor.
Nuestros brazos, hasta hoy desarmados estén siempre cebando el cañón,
que algún día las playas de Iberia, sentirán de su estruendo el terror.

VI ESTROFA
En su cima los Andes sostengan la bandera o pendón bicolor,
que a los siglos anuncie el esfuerzo que ser libre, por siempre nos dió.
A su sombra vivamos tranquilos, y al nacer por sus cumbres el sol,
renovemos el gran juramento que rendimos al Dios de Jacob.

For a list of words related to Peru, see:

• Nations of the World - Peru: Republic of; in W South America; capital Lima; area 496,223 sq. mi., pop. 21,904,000; Spanish; Catholic; inti

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See words rhyming with "Peruvian."

  See crossword solutions for the clue Peru.

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - Peru

Français (French)
n. - Pérou

Deutsch (German)
n. - Peru

Português (Portuguese)
n. - Peru

Español (Spanish)
n. - Perú

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
秘鲁

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 秘魯

한국어 (Korean)
페루 (남아메리카의 공화국; 수도 Lima)

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮פרו‬

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