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Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the study of the structure, composition and chemical processes in all living organisms. It covers the structures and functions of various cellular components, including proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids, and other biomolecules.
8,065 Questions
Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin. Both of these are polymers of glucose molecules.
What is the function of ribosome RNA?
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is responsible for helping to build ribosomes, which are complex molecular machines that facilitate protein synthesis in cells. Specifically, rRNA plays a crucial role in assisting with the binding of messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) during translation, ensuring that the correct amino acids are brought together to form a protein.
What fat-soluble vitamin is made in the GI tract by bacteria and helps with blood clothing?
Vitamin K is the fat-soluble vitamin produced by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract that plays a key role in blood clotting.
Yeh, Its An Active Enzyme, i Think Its Mostly Active In Heat; Not Too Sure Though
But It Is Definatley Active :)
Why is the maximum pH 14 and not 15 or 16?
By definition a neutral solution has pH or pOH of 7, and pH + pOH= 14.
The reason for pH maxing out at 14 is easiest to explain by examining what happens at low or negative pH values. Looking at what would go on at a pH of <0 to generate a pOH of >14. It is possible to calculate solutions which meet this criteria , but do they really exist?
Any acid that yields a concentration of hydrogen ions with a molarity greater than 1 will be calculated to have a negative pH. Any glass pH electrodes dipped in such a solution would exhibit 'acid error' which causes them to measure a higher pH than the real pH.
Another technical problem is that strong acids do not fully dissociate at high concentrations. Using HCl as an example some of the hydrogen would remain bound to the chlorine so the true pH would be higher than the calculated pH
Even the definition of how we calculate pH starts to fall apart. Normally pH isis calculated as -log [H+] (negative of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion molarity). This would have to be corrected to be pH = - log aH+ (negative pf the logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity) for reasons that dont need to be covered here.
What macromolecule does lugols reagent detect?
Lugol's reagent detects the presence of starch, which is a polysaccharide macromolecule made up of glucose units. The reagent turns blue-black in the presence of starch.
What is one reason that viruses are considered nonliving?
Viruses lack the ability to carry out metabolic processes on their own, such as growth and reproduction, which are characteristics of living organisms. They also do not have cellular structure like living organisms do.
No, milk is not an unsaturated fat. Milk contains a mixture of fats, including saturated fats and small amounts of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats are typically found in foods like nuts, seeds, oils, and fatty fish.
Membranes are composed of a bilayer of?
phospholipids, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward, creating a barrier that selectively allows substances to pass through.
Why do potassium dihydrogen phosphate used in carbohydrate metabolism by yeast?
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) is used as a nutrient source in yeast culture media for its source of phosphate and potassium. These nutrients are essential for carbohydrate metabolism in yeast, supporting processes like glycolysis and fermentation. The presence of KH2PO4 helps optimize the growth and productivity of yeast cells during fermentation processes.
What are the emperical formulas for maltose sucrose and lactose?
The empirical formula for maltose is C12H22O11, for sucrose it is C12H22O11, and for lactose it is C12H22O11. This means that all three sugars have the same empirical formula.
What is the difference of pH on the levels of mundane and spiritual?
'This letter somewhat explains it ?'
Alkaline, Anionic, Acid, Cationic...
A letter from Michael Olszta, RBTI Consultant
The lemon is not an acid in Reams terminology since an acid to him is a cation. Let's go back to basics in RBTI nomenclature and let's look at a simple atom of Nitrogen which can be either anionic or cationic:
Anionic Nitrogen - One atom would have 1 cation in the core and 1 anion in the shell in orbit. The cation in the core is rotating counterclockwise as you look down upon it and it is positively charged. The anion in the shell is rotating clockwise and is negatively charged.
Cationic Nitrogen - One atom would have 1 anion in the core and 1 cation in the shell in orbit. The anion in the core is rotating clockwise as you look down upon it and it is negatively charged. The cation in the shell is rotating counterclockwise and is positively charged.
Which direction would the anionic nitrogen be moving? It would be moving up toward the Van Allen Belt which is anionic.
Which direction would the cationic nitrogen be moving? It would be moving down toward the earth which is cationic.
How many Milhouse units of energy are in the electron of the shell of the anionic nitrogen? 1 to 499.
How many Milhouse units of energy are in the proton of the core of the anionic nitrogen? 500 to 999.
How many Milhouse units of energy are in the electron of the shell of the cationic nitrogen? 500 to 999.
How many Milhouse units of energy are in the proton of the core of the cationic nitrogen? 1 to 499.
Nitrogen is an isotope which, in RBTI terminology, is an element that can be either cationic (positively charged, turning counter clockwise, and heading downward toward the earth) or anionic (negative charged, turning clockwise, heading upward toward the Van Allen Belt).
pH has nothing to do with an element being cationic or anionic. It only measures the resistance between the two. Read Beddoe's definitions:
- pH - A measure of resistance. A pH of 7 means that there is an equal resistance between anions and cations. (Olszta's note: however, it doesn't indicate whether the substance being tested is anionic or cationic)
- Resistance - The effect produced when anions and anions or cations and cations or anions and cations of differing Milhouse unit value encounter each other. One could say that resistance is a type of friction which causes energy to be given off. (Olszta's note: however, it doesn't indicate whether the substance is anionic or cationic)
Beddoe defines acid as being "a solution with a resistance range (pH) from 00-7.0. However, Dr. Reams does not define it that way. The terms "acid" and "alkaline" are (at least as far as I can see) defined by Dr. Reams as being cationic and anionic (according to the aforementioned definitions) respectively. Therefore, when Dr. Reams speaks of HCL being anionic and/or a base, those two terms mean the same to him and refer only to the direction and charge of the ions both in the core and shell of the molecule.
Back to the lemon: Even though the pH is "acid" per Beddoe's definition in the previous paragraph, according to Dr. Reams it is really "alkaline" seeing that acid and alkaline to him refer to the charge and spinning direction of the ions that make up the substance. So I have to assume that the atomic structure of the shell of the molecules making up the lemon is an anionic pattern (negatively charged, turning clockwise and upwards toward the Van Allen Belt) yet the resistance or the friction between the anions and anions, cations and cations, and anions and cations is giving off more cationic energy and hence the "acid" pH reading.
Go back to Beddoe's book in the chapter pH Principleswhere he discusses the principles of tissue change from the best line of resistance (Chapter 7 / 77 in my copy). He gives a chart where he shows what is happening when the body chemistry is going Toward Cationic versus Toward Anionic. He then describes how when the chemistry moves to cationic, the actual breakdown is occurring in the upper (more anionic) part of the organ as the energy is flowing down from the top and moving through the bottom of the organ. Hence, the pH will give an acidic reading. It will be vice versa if the energy flow is moving upward, i.e., the loss of energy is coming from the bottom part of the organ and going out through the top of the organ and being lost in anions and hence there will be an alkaline pH reading. BUT THIS HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH THE OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY, i.e., THAT OUR BODIES ARE CATIONIC BODIES, NOT ANIONIC BODIES. The pH is only measuring the resistance or lack of resistance of the energy flow in the body.
Back to the so called "acid" lemon AGAIN! The energy being lost in the lemon is being lost from the top of the atomic molecule structure downward, that is, the resistance of the electrical flow of energy in the lemon is lower than neutral and hence the pH reads acid. But the overall structure of the lemon is anionic (I'm taking Dr. Reams at his word here) meaning that the core nitrogen of every molecule is cationic but the elements in orbit in the molecule are circling in such a fashion (clockwise) and are negatively charged to make the lemon anionic.
At least that's the way I see it. It was always hammered into our heads that pH is only a measure of resistance, not a measure of quantity or quality. And I don't think it is possible to understand the RBTI unless one can get this most important point into one's mind. Reams said all foods are cationic except the lemon, yet the lemon turns out to be acid on the pH scale and I dare say that many foods we eat would end up being alkaline if we tested the pH of them.
But again, the pH is only showing the resistance or lack thereof and the result of the friction between the ions and the energy being given off by them. It does not tell us if the substance is anionic or cationic; it only tells us how the energy is being lost.
Why is a protein least soluble at its isoelectric point?
You mean "why is a protein least soluble when the pH of aqueous media matches the value of its isoelectric point?".
The answer is that at its isoelectric point the protein surface carries no net charge. As protein solubility is based upon favourable electrostatic interactions between the charges (negative or positive) on the protein surface and the delta-negative or delta-positive dipoles on water molecules, when there is LEAST charge on the protein surface you can also expect their to be the least favourable interactions between water molecules and the protein. As the protein-water interaction is in competition with protein-protein interactions, being at the pI most favours protein-protein interactions, which leads to precipitation, compared to protein-water interaction which lead to solvation.
Isoelectric. "equal electric [charge]"
The previous answer is incorrect in multiple ways and correct in some. It states "protein solubility is based upon electrostatic interactions between the charges (negative or positive) on the protein surface and the ...dipoles of water". Firstly, there cannot exist an electrostatic interaction (coulombic) with one charged molecule and an uncharged water molecule/induced dipole. An electrostatic force of a charged particle must have an electrolyte in solution for interaction.
What the explanation aimed to describe is the decreased ion-induced dipole forces from a charged amino acid side chain to molecules of water at the pI of the protein. The singular force of which is stronger than H-bonding (and much stronger than van der waals, london/dispersion forces). Collectively H-bonding of the exterior amino acids is a much stronger force than total of the ion-induced dipoles.
...However, if we were talking about "solvation" of the molecule, then his answer would be completely correct where at the isoelectric point the least solvation would occur, largely due to the absence of charged outer residues...
Why is the solubility not dependent on ion-induced dipole? We only have 5 natural occurring amino acid R groups that can be charged around neutral pH: aspartate, glutamate - whose side chains behave as any other organic acid in the physiological range, reacting with other amine side chains, going through esterification with alcohols, chelation of divalent metal ions, etc.
The basic residues - lysine and arginine, lysine will undergo a number of reactions with or without a protonated nitrogen. Arginine however is likely going to carry a net charge at any protein pI and is the least reactive A.A. (however its' frequency in proteins is 5.7%, of this percent a fraction of which will go toward ion-dipole surface interaction with water. The same goes for histidine but it is even less frequent in proteins (2.2%).
The pI of most any protein will be nearer to the physiological range than to either extreme, so we can rule out mass protonation/deprotonation of side chains at its pI, which is the only way ion-induced dipole forces would participate in such solubility changes anyhow.
So what does make a protein soluble/insoluble in water?
A protein's 'solubility' comes first from the specific volume of water being much smaller than the specific volume of the protein. Meaning although our protein may be more dense than water, it has a tendency to be suspended in solution because of the much larger volume occupied (this of course is not true for many types of proteins, seen more in globular proteins but the theory is the same).
The major factor of protein solubility according to pI is hydrophilic residues (vs hydrophobic) on the exterior. As the pH of the solution nears an equilibrium of oxidation/reduction of the hydrophobic exterior residues, less water molecules are forming h-bonds, dipoles, van der waals, etc on the protein's exterior. You could imagine the H2O 'dispersing' away from the membrane, decreasing the volume occupied by H2O molecules near the protein exterior. This action allows the protein to 'fall' from solution and form a precipitate at the pI of the solution. The physical chemistry behind this action is much more involved, but this should give some idea of the biochemistry of the event.
Enzymes are typically recycled in living systems by being released from their substrate and remaining unchanged after catalyzing a reaction. They can then go on to catalyze more reactions. In some cases, enzymes may be modified or degraded after use and their components reused to make new enzymes.
Do both chloroplasts and mitochondria lack genetic information in the form of DNA?
No, mitochondria have their own DNA separate from the nuclear DNA found in the cell. This DNA encodes for some of the proteins needed for mitochondrial function. Chloroplasts also have their own DNA, containing genes that code for some chloroplast-specific proteins.
Yes, sugar beet is a carbohydrate because it contains sugars like sucrose and fructose that are classified as carbohydrates. Sugar beets are a rich source of carbohydrates and are commonly processed to extract sugar for consumption.
What is the full form of DNA and why is it called so?
the full form of DNA is dirhibonucleicacid, it is called so due to the pattern it forms, it comes into one person by inheriting their parents DNA samples, sorry its a bit difficult for me 2 make it complex but i think its good enough to work?
What integrated group of cells have a common function structure or both?
Tissues are integrated groups of cells that have a common function and/or structure. They are organized into specific layers or patterns to carry out specialized functions within an organism. Examples include muscle tissue for movement, nervous tissue for communication, and epithelial tissue for protection and absorption.
Are there carbohydrates in xanthan gum?
Yes, xanthan gum is a carbohydrate, but it is not a source of digestible carbohydrates. It is a complex sugar derived from the fermentation of corn sugars.
What is Crystalline derivative of amino acid cysteine?
The crystalline derivative of amino acid cysteine is N-acetyl-L-cysteine, commonly known as NAC. This compound is a precursor to the antioxidant glutathione and is used in supplements for its antioxidant and mucolytic properties.
Where do the reactions of the common metabolic pathway take place?
depends on the organism. ill assume you mean eukaryotes, since prokaryotes ("bacteria") do not really have subcellular compartments, to the classical thinking is they are kind of like a big bag with only one "place" : inside (although this is rapidly changing , with the idea the even in proks, there are special regio of hte thcell where certain thing happen...)
anyway, in euks many (glycolisis, much of anabolism) occur in the cytoplasm, with some occurring in the mitochondria (TCA, b-Ox). Various other reactions occur in other compartments (e.g Calvin cycle in choloplasts)
on the other hand you may mean where in an organism do they occur? in humans, many common rxns occur in almost all cells, but others are specialized inand occur only in some types of cells (red blood cells, adipose tissue, the liver, muscel..)
Which blood measurements provide information on a possible anemic condition?
Hemoglobin levels, hematocrit levels, and red blood cell count are blood measurements that can provide information on a possible anemic condition. Anemia is often characterized by low levels of these parameters.
How much carbohydrates are in 100 ml of soy sauce?
There are approximately 8 grams of carbohydrates in 100 ml of soy sauce.
What are monosaccharides made of?
Monosaccharides are made of a single sugar molecule, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are the simplest form of carbohydrates and serve as the building blocks for more complex sugars and carbohydrates. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
