Lutheran

During the 16th century a movement swept through the Christian provinces of the European continent. This movement began as a conflict between the newly emerging nation-states, and the local governments they hoped to incorporate in their fold. Locals found their customs and traditions being overridden by the decrees of leaders who were no involved in their daily affairs. Leaders of this movement preached a strong independent message, which struck a chord with the common people of the day, whom related the words of the message to their current situation. Thus Reformation was a movement born out of religious frustration that was greatly aided by a need for social upheaval. The door was left open to Reformation by the medieval church's overall failure to keep its parishioners complacent. The world was changing during the late 15th and early 16th century, and the church influence suffered because of it. Information had become more readily available to the common person that it had ever been before. The crusades had opened new trade routes, which helped to establish an improved postal service, spread news faster, and expose many to new cultures and ideas. Additionally, the newly invented printing press, propelled by the advent of moveable type thanks Johannes Gutenberg, spread literacy in the lower classes and made possible for more people to have access to the written resources of their faith. With printed bibles, the word of God was no longer only in the hands of the clergy. People could, and would, now develop their own thoughts, and freely exchange them. Intellectuals and lay people took the lack of satisfaction they had received on an intellectual and person level from the medieval church, and focused it on creating a sense of individual piety.The Modern Devotion is a prime example of such actions in motion. Founded by Gerald Groote, and based in the Netherlands, the brothers of the Modern Devotion attempted to live a life of piety, in a way unlike that of other monasteries. Brothers and the limited number of Sisters, of the Modern Devotion were not required to wear specific dress or to remove themselves from their secular duties and responsibilities. This was a stark contrast to the Catholic institution of clergymen whom took full advantage of their freedoms from taxes, military service, and immunity from civil disputes. A book, explaining the intent and message of the Modern Devotion, titled "Imitation of Christ" was published and as it became wide spread, was a great influence to many on eve of the Reformation movement.The Reformation has it's origins in Germany and Switzerland. These sections of Europe had lacked the unification found in France or England, and had thus escaped the same level of political control the Holy Roman Church had on those states. However, during the 16th century various Princes in the German and Swiss provinces began to consolidate their power and enforce the will of the Church. This was not something that free cities, which had a legacy of self government, were ready to accept. Many citizens were dismayed at the tightening of their political freedoms, and to those with religious concerns were increasingly suspect of the financial abuses perpetrated by the church. These frustrations created a platform for Martin Luther to stand on, and perhaps pushed him to be so defiant as to post upon the doors of the Castle Church of Wittenberg 95 theses against indulgence. This act made Luther the first prominent leader of the Reformation movement. The son of a peasant copper miner, Luther was afforded the luxury of a fine education, including a stay at the University of Erfurt during which he completed both bachelor's and Master's degrees. Following this, Luther had intended to follow his Father's wishes and study law. However, this was not to be. During the summer months of 1505, Luther entered the Augustinian Monastery in Erfurt, intending to devote himself to his faith. This swift decision can be credited to a chance event in his life. Whilst on a trip, Luther found himself caught in a fierce lightning storm; he feared for his life. Under duress, he made a pledge to St. Anne, Patron Saint of Travelers. If he should survive the night he would dedicate his life to the church. He was ordained in 1507 and was soon asked by his peers to begin a study of theology so that he might become a professor of the subject in one of the new established German Universities. By this time, Luther had heard of problems and corruption within the higher ranks of the church, however, it wasn't until a 1510 visit to Rome that he was able to witness them first hand. A slightly disillusioned Luther, returned to his studies and teaching, eventually earning a doctorate in Theology. It was during this cycle of study and lecturing that Luther became plagued by a question of his own faith. His own sense of sinfulness, of himself and the human race, left him pondering the true aspect of the righteousness required by God for salvation. Eventually, a conclusion was reached. Luther came to believe that the perfect righteousness of God was found through Jesus Christ. The son of God was alone the perfect righteousness. "To believe in Christ meant to stand before God dressed in Christ's sure righteousness." It should go without saying that this was not the typical view of the time. Luther would soon begin to preach his new views to the public, and spread his new word.It wasn't until 1519 that Luther was able capture widespread attention for his cause. The 95 theses against indulgence were a direct attack on the policies of the Catholic Church that resonated with the mood of the German people. Luther would have found himself in much more trouble for his actions had events of the political world not provided him with a favorable situation. The death of Emperor Maximilian I moved the concerns of the governing powers away from the heresy of Luther and onto the process of electing a new emperor. This allowed for the fledgling Reformation movement to expand, while Luther decided what to do next. In 1520, Luther published 3 pamphlets to popularize his movement. The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation was an attempt to convince the German Princes to force reform on the Catholic Church in order to ebb the tide of their political and economic influence in the region. Babylonian Captivity of the Church was an attack on the 7 sacraments of the Church, of which Luther argued only two; Baptism and Eucharist were actually of biblical merit. This pamphlet was a showcase of Luther's desire to return the teachings of the Church to those only based on scripture. His third pamphlet titled Freedom of a Christian explained his new faith to the more and more literate masses. Shortly after the release of these works, Luther was excommunicated by the Church for refusing to retract his views. Then, in 1521, Luther presented his views to the Diet of Worms, over which the Emperor Charles V presided. Again, Luther was asked to retract his views or face harsh punishment, and again, Luther adamantly refused. As result Luther became an imperial outlaw, and spent the next year of his life hidden away, out of the reach of those who would seek to harm him. During this time, He was able to translate the New Testament into German. Giving the people of the German Nation a chance to interpret the teachings of Jesus for themselves, this also went a long way to establishing a common written form of German. Luther remained in hiding until Charles V relinquished territorial control of religious matters to German Princes in an attempt to establish good relations and round up troops to fight in his war against France and the Ottoman Turks.It was these events that stirred up the German populace and brought about reform in numerous cities and villages. However, it is important to understand that the movement had as much to do with social changes, as it did with changes in religion. Early supporters of Luther and his calls for change saw in him an ally in their own desires to free themselves from the political and economic holds of the Catholic Church. Local magistrates favored Reformation because it allowed them to profit greater than they could have under the Catholic regime and Peasantry found that the theology of "Justification by Faith" quelled their anxiety over their own need to find salvation. However, favor of Luther by those seeking to push their own social agendas would recede as Luther refused to support a peasant uprising in 1524. Luther viewed the uprising as unchristian, and stayed firm in his position that the freedom of the Christian was to be found through spirituality. Through causing much dismay amongst numerous supporters, had Luther contradicted his teaching by supporting the rebellion, the lasting effect of his teachings would have perhaps not reached as far as they did.While he might have been the first, Luther was not the only person leading a reformation movement in Europe during the first half of the 16th century. Ulrich Zwingli began his own movement in Switzerland that occurred nearly co-currently with the Lutheran movement. Zwingli believed firmly that "Whatever lacked literal support in the bible was not to be believed nor practiced" He pushed his agenda by protesting the Lenten fast, and soon began to disagree with other Church practices such as worship of saints, and most importantly clerical celibacy. Zwingli's Protestant sect was the first to allow clerics to marry, a policy quickly adopted by the other sects. Soon, attempts were made to unify the Swiss and German Protestant sects, however Luther and Zwingli never saw eye to eye and such a union never occurred.By 1550 the Lutheran movement had established Protestantism as a religion that was here to stay. However, another sect would rise to take Protestantism further. Calvinism rose up in France, Netherlands, and Scotland; areas that had been largely unaffected by the original movements lead by Luther and Zwingli. The Calvinist differed from other Protestant sects in that they strongly believed in the concept of divine predestination. To them, their purpose on earth was to shape events to follow God's plan. This attitude gave the Calvinist a strong work ethic, which would later be credited to helping shape the economic system of capitalism. Additionally, their belief in predestination inspired political resistance within countries with a high population of Calvinists. The founder of this Movement, John Calvin, came from a different background than earlier reformers, in that he was of a high social class. Calvin was educated; completing a study in law before briefly working with French reformers and eventually being pulled into the service of faith. Calvin desired to transform society morally, basing his faith on conforming to the demands of God. It was with this in mind that he led for reforms in the church, and did manage to accomplish in the city of Geneva. Some viewed Calvin's reforms as overbearing and too extreme, and has such he was eventually thrown out of Geneva and his reforms repealed. Later in life however, Calvin was able to return and reinstitute his rules.Soon the Catholic Church grew increasingly concerned with the spread of Protestantism. Numerous wars on the European continent during the 16th century had prevent secular authorities under the influence of the church from stopping the spread of Protestantism. The new religion had grown roots, and could no longer simply be squashed out. The Catholic decided to begin a series of it's own reforms, designed to lure back those on the fringe of Protestantism. These reforms of this "Counter-Reformation" were made during the Council of Trent. This council was able to address some of the issues of corruption which had spurred Reformation in the first place, yet, over the course of the twenty five meetings that took place between 1545 and 1563 compromises could not be reached to draw the Protestant back into the church. The move seems to have been too little too late. With Protestantism firmly established by the time it took for these changes to finally be enacted, all the Church could do is sit back and watch their influence dwindle. Regardless of the outcome, this move by the Church was a brilliant political maneuver. One has to wonder how things might have been if the church had recognized a need to change earlier in the course of history. The Reformation movement was able to succeed beyond its early days thanks in part to the general population jumping aboard in search of social and political changes. If the Catholic Church had been able to offer the changes that people wanted at the start of the Reformation Movement, it would have not been as quick to spread throughout Europe. However, it seems clear to me that no reasonable effort could have been put forth to stop the gradual separation of church and state. During this time period the modern Nation-State was slowly arriving and the economic burdens of having to submit to some external authority would have been less than ideal to the leaders of these states. Economic policy slowly became more prevalent in running a country, and leaders increasingly viewed the Pope as more rival than peer or leader. Money was power and leaders saw no reason in funding the opposition. I can be argued that the Reformation did a lot to speed this process along by helping to diminish the influence of the papal regime across Europe. If Protestantism had been stopped, or delayed, I think that the separation of church and state would have been hindered, but not stopped. It is in the overriding interest of people to not have to answer to a religious authority, if they have a desire to increase their profit margins. Greed in regard to money is such a driving force that eventually, the issue would have forced itself regardless of the achievements of the Reformation Movement.The Reformation Movement was an important step in freeing people from the overwhelming control of the Catholic Church. By forcing a change in the political system of the day it improved the daily lives of many. The Reformation made it important to read the bible, and thus increased literacy among all classes. It also helped to push forward the separation of Church and state, which allowed easier development of the modern Nation-State, causing economic improvements on national levels. But, in the end, it seems, the Reformers succeeded in their prime objective; they made the world a better place.

Martin Luther visited the city of Rome in 1510.

Lutherans do not believe in divorce, however are released from the marriage when there is adultery committed in the marriage. Mt 19:9 "And I say to you, whoever divorces his wife, except for sexual immorality, and marries another, commits adultery; and whoever marries her who is divorced commits adultery."

Lutheran belief and practice is most accurately outlined in the Lutheran symbolical book, the Book of Concord. All Lutheran Synods and organizations formally subscribe to this book. In the Book of Concord, Article XXIV ("Of the Mass") namely, the Augsburg Confession (1530) states: "Falsely are our churches accused of abolishing the Mass; for the Mass is retained among us, and celebrated with the highest reverence. We do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it . . . we keep the traditional liturgical form In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other holy days, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved (Article XXIV)".

Lutherans in most of the world, commonly use the word "mass" to refer to the formal Lutheran liturgy. North American Lutherans often do not use the term "mass." It is also referred to commonly as "Divine Service," "the Liturgy" or "Corporate Worship" and informally "worship" or "service."

The structure of the Lutheran Liturgy is similar to that of the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Eastern Orthodox Churches. There are also contemporary forms of worship that follow the general format, but loosely resemble the traditional mass. The Lutheran Church, like the others mentioned, is a sacramental Church. The Lutheran focus, in the words of Martin Luther, is that the "Word is rightly proclaimed and the Sacraments are rightly administered." The other non-essential or nonobligatory traditions of worship were coined by Luther as "adiaphoria" or "indifferent things." The word literally means "tolerated and indifferent." While typically Lutherans wear vestments, use candles, gestures, postures and rich Church architecture, arts and statuary, these details may vary. European Lutherans tend to employ rich, bulky , "high church" ritual ceremony and worship. In the U.S., many Churches are 'high church' and employ the fullness of liturgical tradition and some less formal or 'low Church,' parishes may employ a simpler approach. While format may vary, the general liturgical model is:

Prelude

Words of Invocation

Corporate Confession and Absolution

Introit and Gloria Patri

Kyrie

Hymn of Praise or "Gloria in Excelsis"

Collect

Old Testament Lesson

Epistle

Chanting or Reading of the Psalms

Gradual or "Alleluia"

Gospel Lesson

Sermon or Homily

Hymn of the Day

Creed

Prayers of the Church or "Intercessory Prayers"

Sharing of the Peace

Offering is received

Offertory

Great Thanksgiving

Preface

Sanctus

Words of Institution

Lords Prayer

Agnus Dei

Communion (a Sacrament, with belief in the "real presence")

Post-Communion Blessing

Nunc Dimittis

Collect or Prayers

The Salutation and Benedicamus

Benediction and Dismissal

The Most recognizable and common highlighted elements to be found in any Lutheran service are Confession, prayers and hymns, the readings and sermon, communion, the creed and the blessing or "benediction."

The Lutheran Church has a rich musical heritage and many renowned Classical composers, being Lutherans, wrote complex masses, the most famous being Bach's "Mass in B minor." Other composers who wrote famous Lutheran masses and Lutheran Sacred music for mass were George Frederich Handel, Johann Pachelbel, Johannes Brahms, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Michael Praetorius, Johann Walther, Johann Hermann Schein, Samuel Scheidt, Heinrich Schuetz, and many others. There are many living modern day liturgists and composers who write contemporary and traditional settings of Lutheran liturgies.

A common Lutheran liturgy used in North America can be found at ELCA.org.

In most juristictions and synods, they may. In some small Lutheran synods, bishops may not, while priests/pastors and deacons/deaconesses may. Lutheran clergy who are not married are bound to celibacy. Those who believe they have the gift of celibacy, sometimes take a vow of celibacy to devote their entire life to evangelism and charitable work. This is most common in deaconess communites and amongst Lutheran monastics.

because they refused to embrace certain religious beliefs

No, but Lutherans DO think that only those believing in Jesus will spend eternity in Heaven.

Actually, the Catholic Church recognizes ALL marriages between baptized persons as valid sacramental ("religious") marriages. So if the couple was married by a minister in another sect of Christianity, like the Lutheran one, that marriage is recognized. Even if the marriage between two baptized non-Catholics was secular, in a civil ceremony, such as a clerk of the court or a justice of the peace, it is also recognized as a sacramental marriage, because the marriage is theologically contracted through the will of the spouses, and non-Catholics are not bound by formal requirements as Catholics are.

If the marriage is between a Catholic and a baptized non-Catholic, it can be recognized as a religious marriage if a few steps are taken. The Catholic person in the marriage may get a dispensation that allows them to marry a non-Catholic. You can also get one that allows the wedding to be preformed outside of a Catholic church. If you do both, then the marriage is in fact recognized as a religious one by the Catholic Church.

Either is correct. In the United States, "Pastor" is more common. In heavily Lutheran countries, "Father" is the norm. It is more a distinction of local culture and ettiquite than one of doctrine. Both titles basically refer to the role of the parish clergy as spiritual caretaker. Pastor literally means "shepherd."

As do the vast majority of other Christians, Protestants, like Catholics, believe that the miracles are signs (as stated in John's gospel) pointing to the divinity of Jesus Christ. Most protestants take the miracles literally as they remind us of the power of God at work in this world. Protestants also believe in miracles happening throughout history and today. However, unlike Catholics they do not revere anyone as saints because a miracle (or miracles) happened after prayer to that saint. Protestants believe that miracles can only be performed in the power and name of Jesus Christ and not by praying to a dead saint.

Because they have the same enemy the Catholic Church.

nothing

they don't necessarily have any specific beliefs as what to eat and not to eat.

Salvation by grace alone and through faith alone.

You are referring to indulgences. However, there never was a certificate or letter. It was understood. Indulgences can be granted by the pope for performing certain pious devotions, such as a pilgrimage. However, no paperwork changes hands as the Lord knows full well what has taken place. At one time people were granted indulgences if they made a monetary gift to remodel and rebuild Saint Peter's Basilica. Some, including Martin Luther, look on this as a form of simony which, depending on how you look at it, might be considered just that. Did the benefactors donate so as to receive an indulgence (simony) or did they receive an indulgence because they donated?

This depends on the church you attend. Each church within the Lutheran denomination decides for itself when communion is given. Some churches give it every week, or every other week, or only once a month.

In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) woman are able to be ordained pastors. However in the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) woman are not allowed to be ordained pastors.

There is no "leader" of the Lutheran church in the world because there is no worldwide Lutheran church. There are approximately 150 Lutheran denominations throughout the world. Each of these churches has its own leader, and the authority of these leaders within their denominations differs considerably from church to church because the ecclesiastical structure of these churches varies tremendously, from episcopal to synodical to congregational.

Lutheranism is the only major branch of Christianity that lacks a standardized form of church government. Martin Luther did not regard church organization as particularly important. He contended that the Church is found wherever the Gospel is correctly preached and the Sacraments are properly administered. Lutherans therefore believe that the Church is defined by its theology rather than by its organizational structure. All Lutheran churches accept as their authority the Bible, and the three ecumenical creeds (the Apostle's Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the Athanasian Creed), and nearly all accept the authority of the Augsburg Confession of 1530. Most Lutheran churches also accept the Formula of Concord of 1580, which summarized Lutheran theology. Lutheranism's highly sophisticated and systematic theology has been one of its great strengths, and Lutherans have tended to regard theologians as their "leaders." The absence of a unified global church or at least a consistent form of government within individual churches arguably has been a weakness of Lutheranism.

Although Lutherans have a high level of theological unity, the independence of Lutheran denominations creates at least some theological differences among the Lutheran churches of the world. While Lutherans tend to embrace a highly liturgical and "catholic" liturgy, each separate denomination is completely free to adopt its own form of worship, and liturgical practices vary among churches. Similarly, each church is free to make is own pronouncements about political and moral issues (e.g., abortion).

In Scandinavia, where Lutheranism until recently embraced virtually the entire population, each nation has its own church (the Church of Sweden, the Church of Norway, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Finland, and the Church of Iceland). These Lutheran churches have largely preserved the episcopal structure of the pre-Reformation era. All of these churches are divided into dioceses led by bishops. The churches of Sweden and Finland maintain that their bishops have remained in the line of apostolic succession. Since the Scandinavian churches have been state churches, the government of those countries have been the ultimate source of authority in the churches.

In Germany, the structure of the Lutheran church has been extremely complex and has undergone frequent changes. Throughout German history since the Reformation, each political entity has tended to have its own separate Lutheran church. Although a majority of Germans until recent times were at least nominally Lutheran, there has never been a central Lutheran church in Germany. At the present time, the Lutheran churches are organized geographically into several separate denominations (e.g., the Lutheran Church of Hanover, the Lutheran Church of Bavaria, the North Elbian Lutheran Church). These churches are led by bishops and are part of a confederation of German Protestant churches that also include Reformed and United (Lutheran and Reformed) churches, the Evangelical Church of Germany, which is led by a president.

In the United States, Lutherans are organized into several denominations. The largest, the Evangelical Church in America (ELCA), has regional bishops who have been brought into the apostolic succession through the ELCA's formal relationship with the Episcopal Church. The ELCA has a presiding bishop, presently (2012) Mark Hanson. The second largest American Lutheran church, the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, is organized into regional synods that have presidents. The denomination itself has a president.

The large majority of Lutheran churches, presently 143, are members of the Lutheran World Federation, which calls itself a "communion" of churches. The LWF has no authority over its member churches, but it has an important role in coordinating various Lutheran activities, including mission work and enormous global relief efforts. The LWF has its headquarters in Geneva. Its chief officer is a president, presently (2012) Munib Younan, who is bishop of Palestine and Jordan in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land. The Lutheran World Federation includes denominations that represent approximately 70 million of the 75 million persons who are formally members of Lutheran churches. The number of practicing Lutherans probably is less than 75 million, while the number of persons who are at least nominally Lutheran could range as high as 120 million.

Along with the canonical scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, Lutherans accept the three ancient, ecumenical creeds: The Nicene, Apostles and Athanasian Creeds. They also formally accept the Lutheran Symbolical Books as true expositions of Scripture. The Deutorocanonical books of the Bible are considered good for study and edification, but do not necessarily hold the same doctrinal authority as the other books.

It depends on the church. Some you can; others (like Missouri or Wisconsin Synod), you must be a member.

Luther began studies in law and philosophy, but found them unsatisfactory and he did not complete the courses. He studied theology, eventually becoming a Doctor of Theology and a lecturer at the University of Wittenberg.