The waters surrounding the North Pole between North America and Eurasia. The smallest ocean in the world, it is covered by pack ice throughout the year.
Arctic Ocean
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Arctic Ocean, the smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000 sq km), located entirely within the Arctic Circle and occupying the region around the North Pole.
Oceanography and Environment
Nearly landlocked, the Arctic Ocean is bordered by Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Norway. The Bering Strait connects it with the Pacific Ocean and the Greenland Sea is the chief link with the Atlantic Ocean. The principal arms of the Arctic Ocean are the Beaufort, Chukchi, East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, Barents, and Greenland seas. The floor of the Arctic Ocean is divided by three submarine ridges—Alpha Ridge, Lomonosov Ridge, and the Arctic Mid-Oceanic Ridge; other submarine ridges, such as the Faeroe-Icelandic Ridge, act to separate the Arctic Ocean from the Atlantic.
The Arctic Ocean has the widest continental shelf of all the oceans; it extends c.750 mi (1,210 km) seaward from Siberia. From the shelf rise numerous islands, including the Arctic Archipelago, Novaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, and Wrangel Island. The continental shelf encloses a deep oval basin (average depth 12,000 ft/3,658 m) that stretches between Svalbard and Alaska; E of Greenland the ring of the continental shelf is broken by the Greenland Sea. The greatest depth (17,850 ft/5,441 m) in the Arctic Ocean is found just N of the Chukchi Sea. Since the Arctic's connection with the Pacific Ocean is narrow and very shallow, its principal exchange of water is with the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. Even there, though surface waters communicate freely and a strong subsurface current brings warm water from the Atlantic into the Arctic basin, exchange of deeper waters is barred by submarine ridges. Thus a near stagnant pool of very cold water is found at the bottom of the Arctic basin.
Because several major rivers in Siberia (Lena, Yenisei, Ob) and Canada (Mackenzie) bring in much water, and because evaporation is only slight, the outflow through the Greenland Sea is important. It creates the cold East Greenland Current, which flows south along the coast of E Greenland. A weaker current goes through Smith Sound and Baffin Bay and is known as the Labrador Current. Another weak current flows out of Bering Strait. The water that does not flow out by the Greenland Sea seems to be deflected by N Greenland and forms the current that gives rise to a circular current in the Arctic basin itself. This circular current causes the relatively light ice of the Siberian seas, which contrasts with the heavy-pressure ice phenomenon off Greenland and Ellesmere Island (in the Arctic Archipelago). The drift of ice southward and westward has been noted and utilized by explorers.
Once called the Frozen Ocean, the Arctic Ocean is covered with ice (2–14 ft/.6–4 m thick) throughout the year in most of its central and western portions. Since the 1980s, however, the extent of the summer ice has been significantly reduced, and most researchers expect that, due to global warming, the ocean will become ice-free during the summer sometime between 2030 and 2070. Some of the ice pack remains in the Arctic basin, and some, carried out by the East Greenland Current, melts before going far enough south to reach the regular Atlantic shipping lanes; the icebergs that harass ships are generally brought from the fjords of W Greenland by the Labrador Current. It was long thought that no non-oceanic life could exist in the Arctic; however, despite drifting ice, ice packs, vast ice floes, and winter temperatures to −60°F (−51°C), there are hares, polar bears, seals, gulls, and guillemots as far north as 88°.
The cold Arctic currents give the shores of NE North America and NE Asia a much colder climate than the northwest shores of Europe and North America, which are warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and the Japan Current. The Arctic currents are also less saline and lighter than these warmer currents, and therefore the Arctic water is at the surface and the Atlantic current beneath, where they are exchanged in the Greenland Sea.
Exploration and Scientific Research
The Arctic basin was almost wholly unexplored until the Amundsen-Ellsworth flight over it in 1926. Arctic research was stimulated when it was recognized that the shortest air routes between the great cities of the Northern Hemisphere cross the Arctic Ocean. Improved technology has also facilitated research, with the development of aerial and satellite photography and photogrammetry for precise mapping, the sonic echo sounder for measuring ocean depths, and radio to maintain contact with the rest of the world. Detailed knowledge of drifts and ice floes, water depths, and the ocean floor has vastly increased. Soviet polar scientists investigated (1948–49) the Lomonosov Ridge, an undersea mountain range that influences the pattern of ice drift and the circulation and exchange of water in the Arctic Ocean. American scientists in 1959 discovered the existence of a submarine plateau rising 8,100 ft (2,469 m) from the ocean floor. In 1995 the U.S. navy agreed to lend its force of nuclear attack submarines for a series of civilian expeditions to the Arctic.
One fact of great potential importance is now being studied—the Arctic Ocean is warming. Recorded temperatures, glacial regressions, and the appearance of observed species of fish in larger numbers, at higher latitudes, at earlier seasons, and for long periods prove that over the decades a “climatic improvement” has taken place. Similar changes have been reported in sub-Arctic latitudes. Whether the warming is a phase in a cycle or a permanent development cannot yet be said. The warming may be affecting wind patterns above the region, amplifying the depletion of the ozone layer and possibly increasing precipitation. The area of the Arctic Ocean covered by year-round ice has decreased since the late 1970s, and an increased amount of fresh water is entering the ocean from bordering rivers.
For an account of exploration and for bibliography, see Arctic, the.
| Geography: Arctic Ocean |
The cold, ice-covered waters surrounding the North Pole, located entirely within the Arctic Circle. It contains the northernmost islands of Canada, Norway, and Russia.
- Most of the Arctic Ocean is covered by solid ice, ice floes, and icebergs.
| Statistics: Arctic Ocean |
Introduction
| Background: | The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean. |
Geography
| Location: | body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle |
| Geographic coordinates: | 90 00 N, 0 00 E |
| Map references: | Arctic Region |
| Area: | total: 14.056 million sq km note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies |
| Area - comparative: | slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US |
| Coastline: | 45,389 km |
| Climate: | polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow |
| Terrain: | central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that, on average, is about 3 meters thick, although pressure ridges may be three times that thickness; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight-line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonosov Ridge) |
| Elevation extremes: | lowest point: Fram Basin -4,665 m highest point: sea level 0 m |
| Natural resources: | sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales) |
| Natural hazards: | ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May |
| Environment - current issues: | endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack |
| Geography - note: | major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months |
Economy
| Economy - overview: | Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals. |
Transportation
| Ports and terminals: | Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US) |
| Transportation - note: | sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways |
Transnational Issues
| Disputes - international: | some maritime disputes (see littoral states) |
| Wikipedia: Arctic Ocean |
| Earth's oceans (World Ocean) |
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The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest, and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions.[1] The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas of the Atlantic Ocean.[2] Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing World Ocean.
Almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America, the Arctic Ocean is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year[3] (and almost completely in winter). The Arctic Ocean's temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes;[4] its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.[1] The National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) use satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
Contents |
Geography
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2 (5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Russia.[5] The coastline length is 45,390 km (28,200 mi).[5] It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and several islands. It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea[1].
According to the International Hydrographic Organization,[6] the limits of the Arctic Ocean proper (that is, excluding the seas within the Ocean) are (see the map):
- A great circle line running from Cape Morris Jesup, the northernmost point of Greenland (83°38′N 32°40′W / 83.633°N 32.667°W) to the northernmost point of Spitsbergen (south of which line lies the Greenland Sea).
- Parallel 80° North to North East Land (Nordaustlandet).
- The north shore of Nordaustlandet to its easternmost point, Cape Leigh Smith (80°05′N 28°00′E / 80.083°N 28°E).
- A line running from Cape Leigh Smith to Cape Kohlsaat, the easternmost point of Franz Josef Land (81°14′N 65°10′E / 81.233°N 65.167°E, south of which line lies the Barents Sea].
- A line running from Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov (Arctic Cape), the northernmost point of Komsomolets Island (81°13′N 95°15′E / 81.217°N 95.25°E, south of which line lies the Kara Sea).
- A line running from Arctic Cape to the northernmost point of Kotelny Island (76°10′N 138°50′E / 76.167°N 138.833°E, south of which line lies the Laptev Sea).
- A line running from the northernmost point of Kotelny Island to the northernmost point of Wrangel Island (71°40′N 179°30′W / 71.667°N 179.5°W, south of which line lies the East Siberian Sea).
- A line running from the northernmost point of Wrangel Island to Point Barrow, the northernmost point of Alaska (71°23′N 156°29′W / 71.383°N 156.483°W, south of which line lies the Chuckchi Sea).
- A line running from Point Barrow to Cape Land's End on Prince Patrick Island, Northwest Territories (76°27′N 121°59′W / 76.45°N 121.983°W, south of which line lies the Beaufort Sea).
- The northwest coast of Prince Patrick Island north to Cape Leopold M'Clintock, its northernmost point (77°33′N 116°23′W / 77.55°N 116.383°W).
- A line running from Cape Leopold M'Clintock to Cape Murray on Brock Island (77°57′N 115°04′W / 77.95°N 115.067°W).
- The northwest coast of Brock Island north to its northernmost point (78°05′N 114°20′W / 78.083°N 114.333°W).
- A line running from the northernmost point of Brock Island to Cape Mackay on Borden Island, its westernmost point (78°20′N 113°18′W / 78.333°N 113.3°W).
- The northwest coast of Borden Island north to Cape Malloch (78°46′N 110°24′W / 78.767°N 110.4°W, the northernmost point of the Northwest Territories).
- A line running from Cape Malloch to Cape Isachsen on Ellef Ringnes Island, Nunavut, its northwestern most point (79°20′N 105°24′W / 79.333°N 105.4°W).
- A line running from Cape Isachsen to the northwestern most point of Meighen Island (80°05′N 100°10′W / 80.083°N 100.167°W).
- A line running from the northwestern most point of Meighen Island to Cape Stallworthy on Axel Heiberg Island, its northernmost point (81°23′N 93°33′W / 81.383°N 93.55°W).
- A line running from Cape Stallworthy to Cape Colgate on Ellesmere Island, its westernmost point (81°37′N 91°55′W / 81.617°N 91.917°W).
- The north coast of Ellesmere Island north to Cape Columbia, its northernmost point (83°05′N 70°21′W / 83.083°N 70.35°W).
- A line running from Cape Columbia to Cape Morris Jesup (south of which line lies the Lincoln Sea).
An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault-block ridges, plains of the abyssal zone, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,410 ft).[7] The deepest point is in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450 m (17,900 ft).
The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Fram Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (Amundsen Basin) (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).
The Arctic Ocean contains a major choke point in the southern Chukchi Sea,[8] which provides northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait between North America and the Russian city of Arkhangelsk. The Arctic Ocean also provides the shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia. There are several floating research stations in the Arctic, operated by the US and Russia.
The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the Norwegian Current, which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The East Greenland Current carries the major outflow.
Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the equator, meeting with warmer air in the middle latitudes and causing rain and snow. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the cities of Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Churchill and Prudhoe Bay.[8]
The Arctic Ocean is encompassed by the Arctic shelves, one of which, the Siberian Shelf, is the largest on Earth.
History
Further information: Open Polar Sea and Northwest Passage
For much of European history, the geography of the North Polar regions remained largely unexplored and conjectural. Pytheas of Massalia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BCE, to a land he called "Eschate Thule," where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail." He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" and "bergy bits." His "Thule" may have been Iceland, though Norway is more often suggested.[9]
Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of Europeans for a northern passage to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitsbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only the bits of known coastline sketched in.
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was long-lived and persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, made this belief the cornerstone of his campaign of Arctic exploration from 1818 to 1845. In the United States in the 1850s and '60s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen the outskirts of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who trekked closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap was ultimately quite thick, and persists year-round.
Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard with air support.[citation needed]
Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes.[10]
Climate
| The images below compare the average late winter and late summer polar ice pack of the Arctic Ocean, averaged between the years 1978 and 2002, which denotes variation in amounts of ice pack during these time periods.[11] | |
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Under the influence of the present ice age, the ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by continuous darkness (polar night), cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.
The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater, slightly below 0 °C (32 °F). In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extremes of temperature seen on the Antarctic continent.
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 20 in) over the frozen ocean.
Climate has varied significantly in the past; as recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum the region reached an average annual temperature of 10-20 °C (50-68 °F);[12] the surface waters of the northernmost[13] Arctic ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms[14] requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F).[15]
Natural resources
See also: Territorial claims in the Arctic and Marine mammal
Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.[8]
The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.[16] It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market.[17]
Natural hazards
Ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Permafrost is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and ships are subject to superstructure icing from October to May.[8] Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).
Animal and plant life
Endangered marine species include walruses and whales.[8] The area has a fragile ecosystem which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage.[8]
The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic. Nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans provide food for the Arctic phytoplankton.[18] During summer, the Sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter where they struggle to get enough light to survive.[18]
Environmental concerns
The polar ice pack is thinning, and, in many years, there is a seasonal hole in the ozone layer.[20] Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's albedo, thus possibly affecting global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.[21] In fact, research shows that the Arctic may be ice free for the first time in human history between 2013 and 2040.[22] Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.[21]
Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea[23] and Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya.[24]
Major ports and harbors
Some notable ports and harbours from west to east include:
- United States
- Canada
- Norway
- Russia
See also
- Arctic Bridge
- Wildlife of the Arctic
- Extreme points of the Arctic
- International Arctic Science Committee
- Nordicity
- North Atlantic Current
- Subarctic
- Explorers of the Arctic
- Arctic sea ice ecology and history
- Seven seas
References
- ^ a b c Michael Pidwirny (2006). "Introduction to the Oceans". www.physicalgeography.net. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html. Retrieved on 2006-12-07.
- ^ Tomczak, Matthias; Godfrey, J. Stuart (2003), Regional Oceanography: an Introduction (2 ed.), Delhi: Daya Publishing House, ISBN 81-7035-306-8, http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/
- ^ Since the beginning of the 21st century, sea ice covers only 1/3 to 1/2 the surface of the Arctic Ocean at the end of summer.
- ^ Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ a b Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp. 455. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
- ^ Limits of Oceans and Seas. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 3rd Edition, 1953 (the fourth edition has yet to be ratified)
- ^ "The Mariana Trench - Oceanography". www.marianatrench.com. 2003-04-04. http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm. Retrieved on 2006-12-02.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Arctic Ocean CIA World Factbook. 30 November 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Pytheas Andre Engels. Retrieved 16 December 2006.
- ^ North Pole drifting stations (1930s-1980s)
- ^ What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice 2007-01-31, The National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
- ^ Shellito, C.J.; Sloan, L.C.; Huber, M. (2003). "Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric CO2 levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 193 (1): 113–123. doi:.
- ^ Drill cores were recovered from the Lomonosov Ridge, presently at 87°N
- ^ the dinoflagellates Apectodinium augustum
- ^ Sluijs, A.; Schouten, S.; Pagani, M.; Woltering, M.; Brinkhuis, H.; Damsté, J.S.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Reichart, G.J.; Stein, R.; Others, (2006). "Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum". Nature 441 (7093): 610–613. doi:.
- ^ The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC
- ^ The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, by Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007
- ^ a b Physical Nutrients and Primary Productivity Professor Terry Whiteledge. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005 Robert Simmon, Earth Observatory, and Walt Meier, NSIDC. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Clean Air Online - Linking Today into Tomorrow
- ^ a b Earth - melting in the heat? Richard Black, 7 October 2005. BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Russia the next climate recalcitrant Peter Wilson, 17 November 2008, The Australian. Retrieved 2 February 2009.
- ^ 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, 24 August 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
- ^ "Backgrounder - Expanding Canadian Forces Operations in the Arctic" (HTML). http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=1785. Retrieved on 2007-08-17. mirror
Further reading
- Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
- Ray, L., and bacon, B., eds., The Arctic Ocean 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9
- Thorén, Ragnar V. A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
External links
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Look up arctic ocean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
- The Hidden Ocean Arctic 2005 Daily logs, photos and video from exploration mission.
- Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
- Arctic Council
- The Northern Forum
- Arctic Environmental Atlas Interactive map
- NOAA Arctic Theme Page
- Arctic Ocean entry at The World Factbook
- Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954-1990) at NSIDC
- Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection
- NOAA North Pole Web Cam Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
- NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
- Search for Arctic Life Heats Up by Stephen Leahy
- International Polar Foundation
- National Snow and Ice Data Center - Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data
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Coordinates: 90°N 0°E / 90°N 0°E
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Mentioned in
- Greenland Sea
- North Pole (Geography)
- Kara Sea
- Indigirka (river, Russia)
- Arctic Archipelago (group of more than 50 large islands)
- Axel Heiberg (island of northern Northwest Territories)
- Banks Island
- Denmark Strait
- East Siberian Sea
- Morris Jesup, Cape (cape of northern Greenland on the Arctic Ocean)
- North Atlantic Ocean
- North Pacific Ocean
- Parry Islands
- Peary Land (peninsula of northern Greenland)
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