Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия, variously transliterated, also
Kirgizia or Kirghizia) (IPA pronunciation: /ˈkəːgɪztan/), officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, it borders
Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west,
Tajikistan to the southwest and China to
the southeast.
History
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Early history
According to recent historical findings, Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 BC. The early
Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central
Siberia. The discovery of the Pazyryk and Tashtyk cultures show them as a blend of Turkic and Iranian nomadic tribes. Chinese and Muslim sources
of the 7th–12th centuries AD describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with a fair complexion and green or blue eyes.
The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian
population is confirmed on the other hand by recent genetic studies.[1] Remarkably, 63% of the modern Kyrgyz men share Haplogroup R1a1
(Y-DNA) with Tajiks (64%), Ukrainians (54%),
Poles (56%) and even Icelanders (25%). Haplogroup R1a1 (Y-DNA) is believed to be a marker of the Proto-Indo-European language speakers.
The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khanate in 840 A.D. Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the
Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the
12th century, however, the Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to the Altay Range and the Sayan Mountains as a result of the rising
Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in
the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south.
Russian influence
In the early 19th century, the southern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the Khanate of Kokand. The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirgizia", was formally incorporated into
the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover instigated numerous revolts against
tsarist authority, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to move to the Pamirs and Afghanistan. In
addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz to
migrate to China. Since many ethnic groups in the region were (and still are) split between
neighbouring states, at a time when borders were more porous and less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the
mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better; this might mean better rains for pasture or better government after
oppression.
Soviet era
Displays in the former Lenin Museum (now part of the National Museum) celebrated Kyrgyzstan's membership in the Soviet
Union
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1919 and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian SFSR (the term Kara-Kirghiz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from
the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kirghiz). On December 5, 1936, the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a full republic
of the Soviet Union.
During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life. Literacy was greatly improved, and a standard literary language was introduced. Economic and social development
also was notable. Many aspects of the Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite the suppression of nationalist activity under
Stalin, and, therefore, tensions with the all-Union authorities were constant.
The early years of glasnost had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan.
However, the Republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication, Literaturny
Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to
deal with the acute housing crisis were permitted to function.
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in the Osh Oblast, where Uzbeks form a majority of the population. Violent confrontations ensued, and a state of
emergency and curfew were introduced. Order was not restored until August 1990.
The early 1990s brought considerable change to Kyrgyzstan. By then, the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed
into a significant political force with support in Parliament. In an upset victory, Askar
Akayev, the liberal President of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, was elected to the Presidency in October 1990. The
following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new government comprised mainly of younger,
reform-oriented politicians.
In December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it became
the Kyrgyz Republic.) In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its prerevolutionary name of
Bishkek. Despite these aesthetic moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work
against secession from the Soviet Union. In a referendum on the preservation of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7% of the
voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as a "renewed federation."
On August 19, 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there
was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President German
Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire bureau and secretariat resigned. This was followed by the Supreme Soviet vote
declaring independence from the Soviet Union on August 31, 1991.
Independence
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected president of the new independent Republic by direct ballot, receiving
95% of the votes cast. Together with the representatives of seven other Republics that same month, he signed the Treaty of the
New Economic Community. Finally, on December 21, 1991,
Kyrgyzstan joined with the other four Central Asian Republics to formally enter the new Commonwealth of Independent States. In 1992, Kyrgyzstan joined the UN and the CSCE.
The "Tulip Revolution," after the parliamentary elections in March 2005, forced
President Akayev's resignation on April 4, 2005. Opposition
leaders formed a coalition and a new government was formed under President Kurmanbek
Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov. The nation's capital was also looted during
the protests.
Political stability appears to be elusive, however, as various groups and factions allegedly linked to organized crime are jockeying for power. Three of the 75 members of Parliament elected in March 2005
were assassinated, and another member was assassinated on 10 May 2006 shortly after winning his murdered brother's seat in a by-election. All four are reputed to have been directly
involved in major illegal business ventures.
Current concerns in Kyrgyzstan include: privatization of state-owned enterprises, expansion of democracy and political
freedoms, inter-ethnic relations, and terrorism.
Politics
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The 1993 constitution defines the form of government as a democratic republic. The executive branch includes a president and
prime minister. The parliament currently is unicameral. The judicial branch comprises a Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court,
local courts, and a Chief Prosecutor.
In March 2002, in the southern district of Aksy, five people protesting the arbitrary arrest of
an opposition politician were shot dead by police, sparking nationwide protests. President Akayev initiated a constitutional
reform process which initially included the participation of a broad range of government, civil, and social representatives in an
open dialogue, leading to a February 2003 referendum marred by voting irregularities. The amendments to the constitution approved
by the referendum resulted in stronger control by the president and weakened the parliament and the Constitutional Court.
Parliamentary elections for a new, 75-seat unicameral legislature were held on February 27 and March 13, 2005, but were widely
viewed as corrupt. The subsequent protests led to a bloodless coup on March 24, after which
Akayev fled the country and was replaced by acting president Kurmanbek Bakiyev. (see:
Tulip Revolution).
Interim government leaders are developing a new governing structure for the country and working to resolve outstanding
constitutional issues. On July 10, 2005, acting president Bakiyev
won the presidential election in a landslide, with 88.9% of the
vote, and was inaugurated on 14 August. However, initial public support for the new
administration substantially declined in subsequent months as a result of its apparent inability to solve the corruption problems
that have plagued the country since its independence from the Soviet Union, along with the murders of several members of
parliament. Largescale protests against president Bakyiev took place in Bishkek in April and November of 2006, with opposition
leaders accusing the president of failing to live up to his election promises to reform the country's constitution and transfer
many of his presidential powers to parliament. [1]
Provinces and districts
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Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven provinces (sing. oblast (область), pl. oblasttar (областтар)) administered by appointed governors. The capital,
Bishkek, is administratively an independent city
(shaar) with a status equal to a province.
The provinces, and capital city, are as follows:
- Bishkek
- Batken (Batken)
- Chui (Chui-Tokmok)
- Jalal-Abad (Jalal-Abad)
- Naryn (Naryn)
- Osh (Osh)
- Talas (Talas)
- Issyk-Kul (Karakol)
Each province comprises a number of districts (raions), administered by
government-appointed officials (akim). Rural communities (ayıl ökmötü), consisting of up to twenty small
settlements, have their own elected mayors and councils.
Geography
Ala Archa gorge near Bishkek
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Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The mountainous region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as "the Switzerland of Central Asia", as a result [2].), with the remainder made up of valleys and basins. Lake Issyk-Kul in the north-western Tian Shan is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain
lake in the world after Titicaca. The highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming
the Chinese border. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 24,400 feet (7,439 m), is the highest point
and is considered by geologists (though not mountaineers) to be the northernmost 23,000 foot (7,000 m) peak in the world. Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring floods which often
cause serious damage downstream. The runoff from the mountains is also used for hydro-electricity.
The climate varies regionally. The south-western Fergana Valley is subtropical and extremely hot in summer, with temperatures reaching 40°C (104°F.) The northern foothills are
temperate and the Tian Shan varies from dry continental to polar climate, depending on elevation. In the
coldest areas temperatures are sub-zero for around 40 days in winter, and even some desert areas experience constant snowfall in
this period.
Kyrgyzstan has significant deposits of metals including gold and rare earth metals. Due to the country's predominantly mountainous terrain, less than 8% of the land
is cultivated, and this is concentrated in the northern lowlands and the fringes of the Fergana Valley.
Bishkek in the north is the capital and largest city, with approximately 900,000 inhabitants
(as of 2005). The second city is the ancient town of Osh, located in the Fergana Valley near the
border with Uzbekistan. The principal river is the Naryn, flowing west through the Fergana
Valley into Uzbekistan, where it meets another of Kyrgyzstan's major rivers, the Kara Darya,
forming the Syr Darya which eventually flows into the Aral
Sea — although the massive extraction of water for irrigating Uzbekistan's cotton fields now causes the river to dry up
long before reaching the Sea. The Chu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before
entering Kazakhstan.
Enclaves and exclaves
There is one exclave, the tiny village of Barak, Kyrgyzstan[3], (population 627) in the
Fergana valley. The village is surrounded by Uzbek territory and located between the towns of
Margilan and Fergana.
There are four Uzbek enclaves within Kyrgyzstan. Two of them are the towns of
Sokh (area 125 sq. mi/325 km² and a population of 42,800 in 1993, although some
estimates go as high as 70,000; 99% are Tajiks, the remainder Uzbeks), and Shakhrimardan (also
known as Shakirmardon or Shah-i-Mardan, area 35 sq. mi/90 km² and a population of 5,100 in 1993; 91% are Uzbeks, the
remainder Kyrgyz); the other two are the tiny territories of Chuy-Kara (or Kalacha, roughly 3 km long by 1 km wide or 2
mi by 0.6 mi) and Dzhangail (a dot of land barely 2 or 3 km across). Chuy-Kara is on the Sokh
river, between the Uzbek border and the Sokh enclave.
There also are two enclaves belonging to Tajikistan: Vorukh (exclave area between 95 and 130
km² [37–50 sq. mi], population estimated between 23,000 and 29,000, 95% Tajiks and 5% Kyrgyz, distributed among 17
villages), located 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of Isfara on the right bank of the
Karafshin river, and a small settlement near the Kyrgyz railway station of Kairagach.
Economy
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Despite the backing of major Western donors, including the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, the Kyrgyz Republic has had economic difficulties following independence.
Initially, these were a result of the breakup of the Soviet trading bloc and resulting loss of markets, which impeded the
Republic's transition to a free market economy. The government has reduced expenditures, ended most price subsidies, and
introduced a value-added tax. Overall, the government appears committed to the
transition to a market economy. Through economic stabilization and reform, the government
seeks to establish a pattern of long-term consistent growth. Reforms led to the Kyrgyz Republic's accession to the
World Trade Organization (WTO) on December
20, 1998.
The Kyrgyz Republic's economy was severely affected by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the resulting loss of its vast
market. In 1990, some 98% of Kyrgyz exports went to other parts of the Soviet Union. Thus, the nation's economic performance in
the early 1990s was worse than any other former Soviet republic except war-torn Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Tajikistan, as
factories and state farms collapsed with the disappearance of their traditional markets in the former Soviet Union. While
economic performance has improved considerably in the last few years, and particularly since 1998, difficulties remain in
securing adequate fiscal revenues and providing an adequate social safety net.
Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in the Kyrgyz Republic; see
agriculture in Kyrgyzstan. By the early 1990s, the private agricultural sector
provided between one-third and one-half of some harvests. In 2002 agriculture accounted for 35.6% of GDP and about half of
employment. The Kyrgyz Republic's terrain is mountainous, which accommodates livestock
raising, the largest agricultural activity, so the resulting wool, meat, and dairy products are major commodities. Main crops include
wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco,
vegetables, and fruit. As the prices of imported
agrichemicals and petroleum are so high, much farming is
being done by hand and by horse, as it was generations ago. Agricultural processing is a key component of the industrial economy,
as well as one of the most attractive sectors for foreign investment.
The Kyrgyz Republic is rich in mineral resources but has negligible petroleum and
natural gas reserves; it imports petroleum and gas. Among its mineral reserves are
substantial deposits of coal, gold, uranium, antimony, and other rare-earth
metals. Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract
foreign investment in this field. The government has actively encouraged foreign involvement in extracting and processing gold.
The Kyrgyz Republic's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of
hydroelectric energy.
On a local level, the economy is primarily kiosk in nature. A large amount of local commerce occurs at bazaars and small
village kiosks. Commodities such as gas (petrol) are often sold road-side in gallon jugs. A significant amount of trade is
unregulated. There is also a scarcity of common everyday consumer items in remote villages. Thus a large number of homes are
quite self-sufficient with respect to food production. There is a distinct differentiation between urban and rural economies.
The principal exports are nonferrous metals and minerals, woolen goods and other agricultural products, electric energy, and
certain engineering goods. Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper
products, some foods, and some construction materials. Its leading trade partners include Germany, Russia, and neighboring China, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
Demographics
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The World Almanac 2005 reported that Kyrgyzstan's population is slightly more than five million, estimating it at
5,081,429. Of those, 34.4% are under the age of 15 and 6.2% are over the age of 65. The country is rural; only about one-third (33.9%) of Kyrgyzstan's population live in urban areas. The average population density is 69 people per square mile (29 people per km²).
The nation's largest ethnic group is the Kyrgyz, a
Turkic people. The Kyrgyz comprise 69.5% of the population and have historically been
semi-nomadic herders, living in round tents called yurts and tending
sheep, horses and yaks. This
nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally (see transhumance) as herding families
return to the high mountain pasture (or jailoo) in the summer. The retention of this nomadic heritage and the freedoms
that it assumes continue to have an impact on the political atmosphere in the country. The name Kyrgyz, both for the people and
for the nation itself, is said to mean "forty girls", a reference to the Manas of folklore unifying forty tribes against the Mongols.
Other ethnic groups include ethnic Russians (9.0%) concentrated in the North and
Uzbeks (14.5%) living in the South. Small but noticeable minorities include Tatars (1.9), Uyghurs (1.1%), Kazakhs
(0.7%) and Ukrainians (0.5%). Of the formerly sizable Volga
German community, exiled here by Stalin from their earlier homes in the
Volga German Republic, most have returned to
Germany, and only a few small groups remain. A small percentage of the population are also
Soviet Koreans, meaning descendents of the former Korean
residents of Vladivostok, whom Stalin had exiled to
Central Asia (and the Caucasus) during the
(Formerly Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic also Kirghizia (kîr-gē'zhə, -zhē-ə, -zē-ə))
