Biochemistry

Primers - to provide the double stranded section of DNA that the enzyme needs to attach to and to make sure that you amplify the section you're interested in.

dNTPs - nucleotide building blocks to make your PCR product

Taq polymerase - the enzyme that will drive the reaction

DNA - your template and sample of interest

Usually you will also add a buffer and possibly magnesium chloride (depending on whether it's already contained in your buffer or not). The buffer ensures the reaction happens in the correct conditions (pH and so on). The magnesium chloride supplies the Mg ions that Taq polymerase needs as a co-enzyme.

You also need a thermal cycler to run your reaction.

Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are all macronutrients necessary for the body's structure and function. They all provide energy for cellular processes. Additionally, they are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm, followed by pyruvate entering the mitochondria for the TCA cycle in the mitochondrial matrix. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation take place in the inner mitochondrial membrane space.

No, dyads are not visible in mitosis. Dyads are two sister chromatids joined at the centromere, and they separate during anaphase of mitosis to form individual chromosomes that are visible under a microscope.

positive result for when buiret is added to protein is blue or violet/pale lilac colour. (not pink).

positive result for when iodine is added to starch is blue or black colour (not pink).

The loss of structure of an enzyme due to increased temperature is called denaturation. This process disrupts the enzyme's active site, leading to a loss of its biological activity and function.

DNA is replicated during interphase, and chromosomes form or condense during the prophase. So the genes and chromosomes are duplicated at the beginning of mitosis, during the interphase, although you can't see them as chromosomes until the prophase, before the cell splits.

The sex chromosomes, X and Y, are chromosomal landmarks whose inheritance can be tracked. They determine an individual's sex and are passed down from parents to offspring. By studying the inheritance patterns of these sex chromosomes, researchers can track gene flow and genetic diversity within populations.

NAD+ and FAD are electron carriers that function in the Krebs cycle to accept and transport electrons from various reactions within the cycle. They play a crucial role in transferring these electrons to the electron transport chain for ATP production.

Vitamin D is found in green vegetables and sunlight.
Vitamin D occurs naturally in fish and a few other foods. In some countries, staple foods such as milk, flour and margarine are artificially fortified with vitamin D, and it is also available as a supplement in pill form.

No, Initiation is the first step in translation. It involves the binding of mRNA to the small subunit of the ribosome, which marks the beginning of the translation process.

In the pharynx, the primary enzymes present are salivary amylase (ptyalin) and lingual lipase. Salivary amylase helps break down starches into maltose, while lingual lipase aids in digesting fats. These enzymes begin the process of chemical digestion in the mouth before food travels to the stomach.

Proteases, also known as peptidases or proteolytic enzymes, are the class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds within proteins. They facilitate the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides or individual amino acids.

The anticodon loop of tRNA should match the codon of the mRNA during translation. The anticodon is a sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that is complementary to the codon on mRNA, allowing for the correct amino acid to be brought to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Papillary ridges are found on the fingertips, palms, and soles of the feet. These ridges form unique patterns that can be used for identification purposes, such as with fingerprinting.

Testosterone is the primary hormone in males responsible for promoting aggression. It plays a significant role in regulating competitive and assertive behaviors. High levels of testosterone have been linked to increased aggression levels in males.

It has to do with the size of each molecule. One is large (double ring) and the other is small (single ring).

By having them pair with each other, the spacing along the length of DNA or RNA is kept uniform.

Chains of amino acids are called polypeptides or proteins. Longer chains, around 20 amino acids, are referred to as proteins. The bond between two amino acids is a peptide bond - hence polypeptide.

How many peptide bonds are in a tripeptide?

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The Michaelis constant (Km) is a means of characterising an enzyme's affinity for a substrate. The Km in an enzymatic reaction is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half its maximum speed.

Thus, a low Km value means that the enzyme has a high affinity for the substrate (as a "little" substrate is enough to run the reaction at half its max speed).

This is only true for reactions where substrate is limiting and the enzyme is NOT allosteric.

No, that is just plain old covalently bonded sulfur dioxide.

This would be a competitive inhibitor. It can be a structural analog of the substrate. This type of inhibition can be out competed by adding more substrate. A competitive inhibitor increases the Km of the enzyme.

An example of an enzyme that can be blocked is acetylcholinesterase, which helps break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Inhibition of this enzyme can lead to increased levels of acetylcholine in the synapse, affecting nerve impulse transmission. This is a mechanism used in medications for conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.

Members of chromosome pairs separate during mitosis to ensure that each daughter cell receives the correct number of chromosomes. This separation is necessary to maintain the correct genomic content in offspring cells and prevent abnormalities such as aneuploidy.