Comics

 

Comics (or, less commonly, sequential art) is a form of visual art consisting of images which are commonly combined with text, often in the form of speech balloons or image captions. Originally used to illustrate caricatures and to entertain through the use of amusing and trivial stories, it has by now evolved into a literary medium with many subgenres.

The most common forms of printed comics are comic strips (most commonly four panels long) in newspapers and magazines, and longer comic stories in comic books, graphic novels and comic albums. In the first two forms the comics are secondary material usually confined to the entertainment sections, while the latter consist either entirely or primarily of comics.

Depending on the definition of the term, the origin of comics can be traced back to 15th century Europe. However, today's form of comics (with panels, and using text within the image in speech balloons, etc.), as well as the term comics itself, originated in the late 19th century.

Defining comics

Note: Although it takes the form of a plural noun, the common usage when referring to comics as a medium is to treat it as singular.

Scholars disagree on the definition of comics; some claim its printed format is crucial, some emphasize the interdependence of image and text, and others its sequential nature. The term as a reference to the medium has also been disputed.

In 1996, Will Eisner published Graphic Storytelling, in which he defined comics as "the printed arrangement of art and balloons in sequence, particularly in comic books."^[1] Eisner's earlier, more influential definition from 1985's Comics and Sequential Art described the technique and structure of comics as sequential art, "...the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea."^[2]

In Understanding Comics (1993) Scott McCloud defined sequential art and comics as: "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer";^[3] this definition excludes single-panel illustrations such as The Far Side, The Family Circus, and most political cartoons from the category, classifying those as cartoons. By contrast, The Comics Journal's "100 Best Comics of the 20th Century",^[4] included the works of several single panel cartoonists and a caricaturist, and academic study of comics has included political cartoons[3].

R.C. Harvey, in his essay Comedy At The Juncture Of Word And Image, offered a competing definition in reference to McCloud's: "...comics consist of pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa."^[5] This, however, ignores the existence of wordless comics.

Eddie Campbell offered the term graphic storytelling, defining it as "the art of using pictures in sequence and its attendant language of forms and techniques, refined over many centuries."^[6] He contrasted this term with comics, which he defines as "humorous art...but with the proviso that in our own times it has come to embrace not only cartoons but comic strips and comic books which are not necessarily humorous due to their own evolutionary patterns, but they remain under this rubric as they evolved from it."

Most agree that animation, which creates the optical illusion of movement within a static physical frame, is a separate form, although ImageTexT, a peer-reviewed academic journal focusing on comics, accepts submissions relating to animation as well[4], and the third annual Conference on Comics at the University of Florida focused on comics and animation[5].

History

When and where comics originated is another matter of debate, largely dependent on its definition. The majority view, represented by many authors and academic sources, Scott McCloud being the most recent, is that the comic format observes precedents in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Japanese emaki, European stained glass windows, pre-Columbian Central American manuscripts, and the Bayeux Tapestry.^[7][8]

An alternative view is represented by Roger Sabin who argues that the definition is predicated on the printed comic form.^[9] This perspective is increasingly being challenged as electronic distribution of movies, music, books and art emphasizes content over the delivery mechanism.

15th–18th centuries

Sabin cites the invention of the printing press as the moment when the modern form began to crystalise, arguing that the medium of comics has been intrinsically linked with printing.^[10]

An early surviving work which is recognisable as being in the form of printed comics is Francis Barlow's A True Narrative of the Horrid Hellish Popish Plot (c.1682).^[11] The Punishments of Lemuel Gulliver by William Hogarth, (1726), is another early work that bears similarities of form, although Eddie Campbell has argued^[12] that these may be more a collection of cartoons rather than actual comics. Other notable artists producing work in this period are Thomas Rowlandson, Jan Vandergucht, James Gillray and George Cruikshank. Rowlandson and Gillray are credited with having codified the speech balloon in its present form,^[13] from the previous convention of having speech represented by banners.

An example of Rowlandson's work from 1782, satirising the politics of the day, shows it to be an early variation of the strip cartoon. His work popularised the strip form as a pictorial narrative.^[14]

The 19th century

Rodolphe Töpffer, a Francophone Swiss artist, is the key figure of the early part of the 19th century. His work is reprinted throughout Europe and in the U.S., creating a market on both continents for similar works.^[15]

In 1845 Töpffer formalised his thoughts on the picture story in his Essay on Physiognomics: "To construct a picture-story does not mean you must set yourself up as a master craftsman, to draw out every potential from your material – often down to the dregs! It does not mean you just devise caricatures with a pencil naturally frivolous. Nor is it simply to dramatize a proverb or illustrate a pun. You must actually invent some kind of play, where the parts are arranged by plan and form a satisfactory whole. You do not merely pen a joke or put a refrain in couplets. You make a book: good or bad, sober or silly, crazy or sound in sense."^[16][17][18]

Sir Ernst Gombrich certainly felt Töpffer to have evolved a new pictorial language, that of an abbreviated art style, which worked by allowing the audience to fill in gaps with their own imagination.^[19]

Satirical drawings in newspapers were popular through much of the 19th century. In Britain, in 1841, Punch, a magazine containing such drawings launched.^[20] In 1843 Punch referred to its 'humorous pencilings' as cartoons in satirical reference to Parliament, who were organising an exhibition of cartoons at the time. This usage became common parlance and has lasted into the present day.^[21] Similar magazines containing cartoons in continental Europe included Fliegende Blätter and Charivari, whilst in the U.S. Judge and Puck were popular.^[22]

In Germany in 1865 Max and Moritz by Wilhelm Busch was published within a newspaper. This strip is thought to be a significant fore-runner of the comic strip.^[23]

It is also around this time that that manhua, the Chinese form of comics, began to formalise, in a process that lasted up until 1927.^[24]

In 1884, Ally Sloper's Half Holiday was published, reputed to be the first comic strip magazine to feature a recurring character. In 1890 two more comic magazines debuted to the British public, Comic Cuts and Illustrated Chips. These magazines also republished American material, previously published in newspapers in the U.S.. They established the tradition of the British comic as being a periodical containing comic strips.^[25]

Depending on the criteria used, the first successful comics series featuring regular characters was either R.F. Outcault's single-panel cartoon series Hogan's Alley (1895) or Rudolph Dirks' multi-panel strip The Katzenjammer Kids (1897).^[26]

The Yellow Kid, the star of Hogan's Alley, became so popular as to drive newspaper sales, and in doing so prompted the creation of other strips. This boom marks the beginning of comics as an ongoing popular art form.^[27]

The 20th century

The term comics in the U.S. by KK came to define early newspaper strips, which initially featured humorous narratives, hence the adjective comic.^[28] In 1929, strips started to broaden their content, with Buck Rogers and Tarzan launching the action genre. More strips followed, with the term "comic" quickly adopting through popular usage to refer to the form rather than the content.^[29][30]

1929 also saw the first appearance of The Adventures of Tintin published as a black-and-white strip in Le Petit Vingtième, a supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle, a Belgian newspaper. The strip was collected as Tintin in the Land of the Soviets in 1930, being published in the European comic album format.^[31]

Another notable publication of 1929 was The Funnies, a reprint collection of newspaper strips. Reputed to be the first four-color comic newsstand publication in the United States, it was published in tabloid size, a size which left it easily confused with the Sunday supplements of the time and so harmed sales to the extent that publication ceased after 36 issues.

The first publication to use a format recognisable today as a comic book was Funnies on Parade which took the tabloid size used for the Sunday supplements and folded it in half. Published in 1933 by two workers for the Eastern Color Printing Company of New York, Harry Wildenberg and Max Gaines as an advertising giveaway, its success led to similar giveaways being published. On a hunch, Gaines distributed extra copies to newsstands, with a ten cent cover price, returning to find them all sold. This led to Eastern publishing Famous Funnies in May 1934 for sale through the newsstands.^[32]

By 1935 comic books were commissioning original material, mostly influenced by the pulp magazines of the day, whilst also repackaging foreign material.^[33] Will Eisner was one who supplied foreign material, and in his retooling of the material to fit the comic book format Eisner is credited with inventing the grammar of the comic book. Techniques devised by Eisner whilst adapting the material for this new format include the "jump cut".^[34]

In 1938 Action Comics #1 was published, featuring the first appearance of Superman and ushering in what is now referred to as the Golden Age of Comic Books.^[35] Also in 1938, Spirou first appeared in Belgium, starting the typical custom of weekly magazines featuring mostly Franco-Belgian comics.

Little comic book shops popped into the sunlight in England now. Often these would carry "Local" comics. An example hereof is Jafat.

After World War II the form in Japan, known as manga started to modernise. The lifting of a ban on non-propaganda publications, allowed Osamu Tezuka to re-energise both the content of manga and the style of its presentation Tezuka's first book work was an updating of Treasure Island, appropriately titled New Treasure Island (1947).^[36]

During the latter half of the 20th century comics have become a very popular item for collectors and from the 1970s comics publishers have actively encouraged collecting and shifted a large portion of comics publishing and production to appeal directly to the collector's community. The collecting of comics is today known by a separate term known as panelology.

The modern double usage of the term comic, as an adjective describing a genre, and a noun designating an entire medium, has been criticised as confusing and misleading. In the 1960s and 1970s, underground cartoonists used the spelling comix to distinguish their work from mainstream newspaper strips and juvenile comic books; ironically, although their work was written for an adult audience, it was usually comedic in nature as well, so the "comic" label was still appropriate.^[37] The term graphic novel was popularised in the late 1970s, having been coined at least two decades previous, to distance the material from this confusion.^[38]

In the 1980s comics scholarship started to blossom in the U.S.,^[39] and a resurgence in the popularity of comics was seen, with Alan Moore and Frank Miller producing notable superhero works and Bill Watterson's Calvin & Hobbes being syndicated.

In 2005 Robert Crumb's work was exhibited in galleries both sides of the Atlantic, and The Guardian newspaper devoted its tabloid supplement to a week long exploration of his work and idioms.^[40]

The First Period & The Golden Age

The period of time referred to as The First Period began in the 1890s. During this time, a few newspapers began to publish comic strips in their newspapers. The importance of the First Period is mainly that early comic strips began to gain some popularity and acknowledgement from the public.

The Golden Age of Comics (1914) is the period in which comics became widely syndicated. Almost every newspaper began to carry comics in them. Cartoonists such as George Herriman became recognized for their work, particularly, Herriman's "Krazy Kat". The Golden Age also brought the creation of Popeye, by Elzie C. Segar.

The Third Period

The Third Period of comics began in the early 1930s. Up until this time, most comic books were humorous exaggerations of American Life. During the Third Period, however, serious, adventurous comics became very popular. "Terry and the Pirates" for example was a popular fictional adventure comic. Other, more famous comics such as Batman and Superman comics appeared. Flash Gordon Comics were also favorite science fiction comics. Despite the sudden burst of serious comics, humorous ones, such as Li'l Abner were still very successful.

Artistic medium

Comics artists will generally sketch a drawing in pencil before going over the drawing again in ink, using either a dip pen or a brush. Artists will also make use of a lightbox when creating the final image in ink. Some artists, Brian Bolland being a notable example,^[41] are now using digital means to create artwork, with the published work being the first physical appearance of the artwork.

By many definitions (including McCloud's, above) the definition of comics extends to digital media such as webcomics and the mobile comic.

Art styles

Whilst almost all comics art is in some sense abbreviated, and also whilst every artist who has produced comics work brings their own individual approach to bear, some broader art styles have been identified.

The basic styles have been identified as realistic and cartoony, with a huge middle ground for which R. Fiore has coined the phrase liberal. Fiore has also expressed distaste with the terms realistic and cartoony, preferring the terms literal and freestyle, respectively.^[42]

Scott McCloud has created The Big Triangle^[43] as a tool for thinking about comics art. He places the realistic representation in the bottom left corner, with iconic representation, or cartoony art, in the bottom right, and a third identifier, abstraction of image, at the apex of the triangle. This allows the placement and grouping of artists by triangulation.

• The cartoony style is one which utilises comic effects and a variation of line widths as a means of expression. Characters here tend to have rounded, simplified anatomy. Noted exponents of this style are Carl Barks, Will Eisner, Ray Mullikin and Jeff Smith.^[42]

• The realistic style, also referred to as the adventure style is the one developed for use within the adventure strips of the 1930s. They required a less cartoony look, focusing more on realistic anatomy and shapes, and used the illustrations found in pulp magazines as a basis.^[44] This style became the basis of the superhero comic book style, since Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel originally worked Superman up for publication as an adventure strip.^[45]

The language

As noted above, two distinct definitions have been used to define comics as an art form: the combination of both word and image; and the placement of images in sequential order. Both definitions are lacking, in that the first excludes any sequence of wordless images; and the second excludes single panel cartoons such as editorial cartoons. The purpose of comics is certainly that of narration, and so that must be an important factor in defining the art form.

Comics, as sequential art, emphasise the pictorial representation of a narrative. This means comics are not an illustrated version of standard literature, and whilst some critics argue that they are a hybrid form of art and literature, others contend comics are a new and separate art; an integrated whole, of words and images both, where the pictures do not just depict the story, but are part of the telling. In comics, creators transmit expression through arrangement and juxtaposition of either pictures alone, or word(s) and picture(s), to build a narrative.

The narration of a comic is set out through the layout of the images, and whilst there may be many people who work on one work, like films, there is one vision of the narrative which guides the work. The layout of images on a page can be utilised by artists to convey the passage of time, to build suspense or to highlight action.^[46]

For a fuller exploration of the language, please see Comics vocabulary.

The forms

Comics have been presented within a wide number of publishing and typographical formats, from the very short panel cartoon to the more lengthy graphic novel. The cartoon, traditionally containing satirical or humorous content in the manner of those seen in The New Yorker or Private Eye, originate from the mid nineteenth century. This form of comics is still popular, although the last few years has seen a reduction in the number of editorial cartoonists employed in the US media.^[47] Although there is some dispute as to whether the cartoon constitutes a form of comics, a precursor or a related form, it has been argued that since the cartoon both combines words with image and constructs a narrative, it merits inclusion as a form of comics.

The comic strip is simply a sequence of cartoons which unite to tell a story within that sequence, and were originally known as strip cartoons. Originally the term comic strip was used to apply to any sequence of cartoons, no matter the venue of publication or length of the sequence, but now, mainly in the United States, the term refers to the strips published in newspapers. These strips are now typically humorous or satirical strips, such as Hägar the Horrible and Doonesbury, but have often been action themed, educational or even biographical. In the United States the term "comics" is sometimes used to describe the page of a newspaper upon which comic strips are found, and through this usage has also grown to be used as a definition for comic strips. Said pages are also referred to as the "funny pages", and comics are hence sometimes called "the funnies".^[48] In the United Kingdom, the term comic strip is still applied to the longer stories which appear in children's comics such as 2000 AD or The Beano.

Publication formats

Over time a number of formats have become closely associated with the form, from the comic book to the webcomic. The American comic book originated in the early part of the twentieth century, and grew from magazines which repackaged comic strips. Eventually, original material was commissioned, and the material developed from its humorous origins to encompass adventure stories, romance, war and superheroes, with the latter genre coming to dominate the comic book publishing industry in the latter parts of the twentieth century. Although referred to as comic books, these publications are actually more akin to magazines, having soft covers printed on glossy paper, with the interiors consisting of newsprint quality paper or higher grade. In Europe, magazines were always a venue for original material in the form, and such comic magazines or comic books soon grew into anthologies, in which a number of stories would be serialised. In continental Europe a market soon established itself to support collections of these strips. All of these publications are generally referred to as "comics" for short, with typical comic books or magazines running to around 32 pages, including advertisements.

In the United States, when a publisher collects previously serialised stories, such a collection is commonly referred to as either a trade paperbacks or as a graphic novel. These are books, typically squarebound and published with a card cover, containing no adverts. They generally collect a single story, which has been broken into a number of chapters previously serialised in comic books, with the issues collectively known as a story arc. Such trade paperbacks can contain anywhere from four issues (for example, there is Kingdom Come by Mark Waid and Alex Ross), or even twenty (The Death of Superman). In continental Europe, especially Belgium and France, such collections are usually somewhat larger in size and published with a hardback cover, a format established by the The Adventures of Tintin series in the 1930's. These are referred to as comic albums, a term which in the United States refers to anthology books. The United Kingdom has no great tradition of such collections, although during the 1980s Titan publishing launched a line collecting stories previously published in 2000 AD.

The graphic novel format is similar to typical book publishing, with works being published in both hardback and paperback editions. The term has proved a difficult one to fully define, and refers not only to fiction but also factual works, and is also used to describe collections of previously serialised works as well as original material. Some publishers will distinguish between such material, using the term "original graphic novel" for work commissioned especially for the form.

Newspaper strips also get collected, both in Europe and in the United States, and these are sometimes also referred to as graphic novels. In the UK it is traditional for the children's comics market to release comic annuals, which are hardback books containing strips, as well as text stories and puzzles and games. In the United States the comic annual was a summer publication, typically an extended comic book, with storylines often linked across a publisher's line of comics.

Webcomics, also known as online comics and web comics, are comics that are available on the Internet. Many webcomics are exclusively published online, while some are published in print but maintain a web archive for either commercial or artistic reasons. With the Internet's easy access to an audience, webcomics run the gamut from traditional comic strips to graphic novels and beyond.

Webcomics are similar to self-published print comics in that almost anyone can create their own webcomic and publish it on the Web. Currently, there are thousands of webcomics available online. Some webcomics have gained popular, critical, or commercial success.

The comics form can also be utilised to convey information in mixed media. For example, strips designed for educative or informative purposes, notably the instructions upon an aeroplane's safety card. These strips are generally referred to as instructional comics. The comics form is also utilised in the film and animation industry, through storyboarding. Storyboards are illustrations displayed in sequence for the purpose of previsualizing an animated or live-action film. A storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some section of the film produced beforehand to help the directors and cinematographers visualize the scenes and find potential problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement.

Like many other media, comics can also be self-published. One typical format for self-publishers and aspiring professionals is the minicomic, typically small, often photocopied and stapled or with a handmade binding. These are a common inexpensive way for those who want to make their own comics on a very small budget, with mostly informal means of distribution. A number of cartoonists have started this way and gone on to more traditional types of publishing, while other more established artists continue to produce minicomics on the side.

The creation of comics

The nature of the comics work being created determines the number of people who work upon its creation, with successful comic strips and comic books being produced through a studio system, in which an artist will assemble a team of assistants to help in the creation of the work. However, works from independent companies, self-publishers or those of a more personal nature can be produced by as little as one creator.

Comic book creation

Main article: Comic book creator

Within the comic book industry of the United States, the studio system has come to be the main method of creation. Through its use by the industry, the roles have become heavily codified, and the managing of the studio has become the company's responsibility, with an editor discharging the management duties. The editor will assemble a number of creators and oversee the work to publication.

Any number of people can assist in the creation of a comic book in this way, from a plotter, a breakdown artist, a penciller, an inker, a scripter, a letterer, and a colorist, with some roles being performed by the same person.

Comic strip creation

Main article: Comic strip creator

A comic strip tends to be the work of a sole creator, usually termed a cartoonist. However, it is not unusual for a cartoonist to employ the studio method, particularly when a strip become successful. Mort Walker is one such creator who employed a studio, whilst Bill Watterson was one such cartoonist who eschewed the studio method, preferring to create the strip himself.

Cartoon creation

A cartoonist in this instance typically works alone, although again it is not unheard of for a cartoonist to use assistants.

Tools of the trade

An artist will use a variety of pencils, paper, typically Bristol board, and a waterproof ink. When inking, an artist may choose to use a variety of brushes, dip pens, a fountain pen or a variety of technical pens or markers. Mechanical tints can be employed to add gray tone to an image. An artist might also choose to create his work in paints; either acrylics; gouache; poster paints; or watercolors. Color can also be achieved through crayons, pastels or colored pencils.

Erasers, rulers, templates, set squares and a T-square assist in creating lines and shapes. A drawing board gives a good angled surface to work from, with lamps supplying necessary lighting. A light box allows an artist to trace his pencil work when inking, allowing for a looser finish. Knives and scalpels will fill a variety of tasks, including cutting board or scraping mistakes. A cutting mat will assist when cutting paper. Process white is a thick opaque white handy for covering mistakes, whilst adhesives and tapes are helpful in composition where an image may need to be assembled from different sources.

Computer generated comics

With the growth of computer processing power and ownership, there are now an increasing number of examples of comic books or strips where the art is made by using computers, either mixing it with hand drawings or replacing hand drawing completely. Dave McKean is one artist who combines the paper and the digital methods of composition. Don Chambers created Mannequins comic strip on his Macintosh computer in 1996. Mannequins was the first newspaper comic to combine 3D characters with actual photographic scenes in the background. Still, it is important to separate between traditional drawing done with a graphics tablet and actual computer graphics (CG). Computers are widely used for both lettering and coloring, with Blambot Comicraft two studios which proved digitised fonts for comics.

Comics awards

Main article: List of comics awards

There are numerous awards given out within the comics industry, some taking their name from noted creators, others from famous characters or publications. Each country has its own indigenous awards.

Comic book References

Comic Book References are writings containing information on the comic strip in general or in particular, with its own terminology especially for comicologists. For example: monography, bibliography, biography, yearbook, file album, interview book, catalogue, review, guide exposition, fantasy guide, studies (thesis), programme notebook, artbook, sketchbook, comic theory, handbook on making comics, writer's handbook, comic history, terminology, genre description, catalogue on action sales, anthology. The oldest handbook on making comics is written by "The father of the European comic" himself: the teacher from suisse Rodolph Töpffer (Genève 1799 - 1846). This book Essai de physiognomonie has been published in 1845. One of the earliest books on comics is How to draw Comics written by Clare Briggs (Harper & Bros, 1926) and A History of American Graphic Humor Vol 1 - 1747 till 1865, Vol 2 - 1865 till 1938 by William Murrel (1933 and 1938), How to make money, writing for Comics Magazines by Robert Kanigher (1943). But the real interest in Comic theory began in the 1960s when thesis on the comic strip were written on several universitíes. Comic strip theoretical approaches in research became popular in the 1980s. Really famous are works as Comics & Sequential Art (Will Eisner, 1985), Understanding Comics - The invisible Art (Scott McCloud, 1993), Graphic Storytelling (Will Eisner, 1999), Reïnventing Comics (Scott McCloud, 2000); as wel as books on general comic history: The Great Comic Book Heroes (Jules Feifer 1965), Ron Goulart's Great History of Comic Books (1986), The Comics before 1945 (Brian Walker 2002). Especially French specialists on comic strips did write studies with a tremendously influence on the development of comicology: Système de la bande dessinée by Thierry Groensteen (PUF, Paris 1999), l'image BD by Pascal Lefèvre (Open Ogen, Leuven 1991), Case - Planche - Récit - Comment lire un Bande Dessinée by Benoit Peeters (1991). Comic book references are catalogued online: Michigan State University, Comic book Reference Bibliographic datafile, Comics research bibliography. In time many writings are published, recently many manga studies overwhelmed the comic market. Still there are many interesting topics to write about.

See also

Wikimedia free comic projects

Comics movements

• Romance comics
• Underground comics
• Alternative comics
• Autobiographical comics
• Webcomics
• Hypercomics
• Adult comics

Miscellaneous

• 24-hour comic
• Alternative Press Expo
• Animation
• Art
• Comic book collecting
• Comics Code Authority
• Comic-Con
• Gorillas in comics
• Woodcuts
• Comicjam

Lists

• List of comic strips
• List of comic and cartoon characters named after people
• List of comic books
• List of comic book publishing companies
• List of comic creators
• List of cartoonists
• List of webcomics
• List of comics spin-offs

Notes

Bibliography

• Arnold, Andrew (Apr. 05, 2001). "Does X Mark the Spot?". Time. Accessed May 30, 2005.
• Campbell, Eddie (2001). North America's "first" comic. Thread on The Comics Journal Message Board, as archived in Internet Archive. Retrieved on May 4, 2005.
• Fiore. R (2005). Adventures in Nomenclature: Literal, Liberal and Freestyle. The Comics Journal Message Board. Retrieved on June 14, 2005.
• McCloud, Scott (1993). Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Kitchen Sink Press. ISBN 0-87816-243-7. 
• Perry, George; Aldridge, Alan (1989 reprint with introduction). The Penguin Book Of Comics. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-002802-1. 
• Sabin, Roger (1993). Adult Comics An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04419-7. 
• Santos, Derek (1998) Comic History. The Comic Page. Retrieved on June 26, 2005.
• Varnum, Robin & Gibbons, Christina T. editors (2001). The Language of Comics: Word and Image. University Press Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-414-7. 
• Williams, Jeff COMICS: A TOOL OF SUBVERSION? Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 2(6) (1994) 129-146

Further reading

• Mike Benton, The Comic Book in America Taylor Publishing 1989
• Eddie Campbell, alec: how to be an artist Eddie Campbell Comics 2001
• David Carrier, The Aesthetics of Comics, Penn State Press, 2002 ISBN 0-271-02188-8
• Les Daniels Comix, A History of Comic Books in America Bonanza Books 1971
• Christian Davenport The Brother Might Be Made of Steel, But he Sure Ain't Super... Man
• Christian Davenport Black is the Color of My Comic Book Character: An Examination of Ethnic Stereotypes p. 20-28 in Inks, v. 4, no. 1 (Feb. 1997)
• Will Eisner Comics and Sequential Art Poorhouse Press 1985
• Will Eisner Graphic Storytelling Poorhouse Press 1995
• Mark Estren A History of Underground Comics Straight Arrow Press 1987
• Ron Goulart Over 50 Years of American Comic Books Publications International 1991
• Ron Goulart The Funnies: 100 Years of American Comic Strips
• Ron Goulart The Adventurous Decade: Comic strips in the thirties Scond ed. Hermes Press 2005
• R. C. Harvey The Art of the Comic Book: an Aesthetic History University of Mississippi 1995
• R. C. Harvey The Art of the Funnies: an Aesthetic History University of Mississippi 1994
• Maurice Horn ed. The World Encyclopedia of Comics Avon 1977
• Gerard Jones & Will Jacobs The Comic Book Heroes Prima 1996
• Andrea Juno (ed.) Dangerous Drawings: Interviews with comix and graphix artists Juno Books 1997
• David Kunzle A History of the Comic Strip University of California 1973 and 1989
• Harvey Kurtzman From Aargh to Zap! Prentice Hall 1991
• Rick Marschall America’s Great Comic Strip Artists Cross River Press 1989
• Scott McCloud Understanding Comics - the Invisible Art HarperCollins 1994
• Scott McCloud Reinventing Comics HarperCollins 2000
• Scott McCloud Making Comics HarperCollins 2006
• Donald Phelps Reading The Funnies: Essays on Comic Strips Fantagraphics Books 2001
• Matthew J. Pustz Comic Book Culture: Fanboys and True Believers University Press of Mississippi 2000 ISBN 1-57806-201-2
• Moira Davison Reynolds Comic Strip Artists in American Newspapers 1945-1980 McFarland 2003
• Trina Robbins A Century of Women Cartoonists Kitchen Sink 1992
• Roger Sabin Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels: a History of Comic Art Phaidon 1996
• Martin Sheridan Comics and their Creators: Life Stories of American Cartoonists
• Coulton Waugh The Comics The Macmillan Company 1947
• ed. Bill Blackbeard & M. Williams The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics Smithsonian Institute 1988
• ed. Bill Blackbeard & Dale Crain The Comic Strip Century two-volume slipcased collection Kitchen Sink 1995
• ed. Gary Groth & R. Fiore The New Comics Berkley Books 1988
• The Comics Journal magazine

External links

• afNews (Italian) (English brief) Daily comic news
• Andy's early comics archive History of early comics
• British Comics History of British comics
• Supercomics.com.mx Mexican Comics - Data base and discussion
• The Big Comic Book DataBase
• A gallery of comic book covers
• The Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco Comics exhibitions
• Cartoon Research Library
• Comic Art Collection of Michigan State University
• Comic Art Scholar Online forum
• ComicBookDB.com
• Comiclopedia Lambiek's comics encyclopedia
• Comics Scholars' Discussion List Academic forum
• Don Markstein's Toonopedia
• Funny comics images manually updated Funny Comics Images
• ImageTexT Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
• Japanese Comics Database
• The Senate Investigation Excerpt from "Seal of Approval: The History of the Comics Code"
• Stories Without Words:A Bibliography with Annotations (access via Wayback Machine Internet Archive)
• Bande Dessinee Info (French) French comic news
• ADBD (French) Comics webdirectory (French/English)
• Herluph Bidstruph's Comics Collection - More than 40 famous works

Comics around the world
The Americas:	Argentina • Canada • Mexico • United States
Asia:	China • India • Japan • Korea • Philippines
Europe:	Belgium • Czech Republic • France and Belgium combined • Germany • Italy • the Netherlands • Poland • United Kingdom
Oceania:	Australia

nrm:Sornette en portraits

Donate to Wikimedia