Electrical Engineering

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In the electrical trade, there is no such thing as "medium" voltage. Line voltage is broken down into "low" and "high". Low line voltage is 220/110 volt power. In a single phase supply the only required colors are white or grey for the neutral or grounded conductor and green or bare copper for the earth ground, or grounding conductor.

In three phase power supplies, low line voltage (220/110) is marked : Phase A -black, Phase B - red, Phase C - blue.


In three phase high line voltage (480/277) conductors are marked : A -brown, B - orange
C - yellow. Neutrals are still marked white or grey. White is normally used for low voltage neutrals and grey for high voltage neutrals.


In the trade, "low voltage" is considered circuits below 50 volt, such as 12 and 24 volt control circuits, fire alarm, etc.

If the question means to indicate multiplication, then the product is 75,000 cubic ohms.

This quantity has no physical meaning or significance.

he invented Easter camp

AND thennnnnnnn, comprate UN relo

The output of the common emitter amplifier is inverted because increasing the base-emitter current causes a proportional increase in collector-emitter current. That increase in collector-emitter current pulls the collector towards the emitter, so the voltage on the collector will go down when the biased base voltage goes up, and vice versa. This is the characteristic of the Class A Common Emitter amplifier.

Responding to a request for more details...

This is for the NPN transistor. It applies to the PNP transistor as well, but directionality of voltage and current increases is reversed in that case.

Start with the base-emitter circuit. You have some kind of bias network holding the base at a certain voltage. That voltage represents a certain current, which goes through the base-emitter junction and emitter resistor, if there is one. Typically, you consider that the emitter voltage is less than the base voltage by the amount of one diode junction, or about 0.7 volts. If you were to increase the input voltage, you would cause a corresponding increase in base-emitter current.

The transistor has gain, beta-dc or hFe, which is basically the ratio of collector-emitter current over base-emitter current, so the base-emitter current is controlling a larger collector-emitter current.

Now, focus on the collector-emitter circuit. You have some kind of resistor in the collector, and you might have some kind of resistor in the emitter. (More on the emitter resistor later.) Think of this circuit as three resistors in series, the collector resistor, the equivalent resistance of the collector-emitter junctions, and the emitter resistor. This also represents a current, one that is being controlled by the base-emitter resistance.

Note that the base-emitter current is being added to the collector-emitter current, so the emitter current, by Kirchoff's current law, is the sum of the base and collector currents. Since the gain is relatively high, however, the contribution from the base is generally negligible. (In high power transistor amplifiers, gain is usually low, so base current is not negligible, so we do take it into account.)

The crucial factor here is that the collector current is proportional to the base current, in the ratio of beta-dc, or hFe. If, for instance, base current were increased by 1 ma, with an hFe of 200, then the collector current would increase by 200 ma.

Well, sort of....

You have to consider the transistor's limits, and you have to consider whether or not you are opereating in linear mode. Limits are easy, just check the specs. Lets look at linear mode...

If you attempt to pull more collector current than the collector-emitter circuit would allow, i.e. to make the equivalant collector-emitter resistance go to zero, then the transistor starts operating in saturated mode. In saturated mode, the transistor is acting as a switch, and it is distinctly non-linear. Even if not saturated, the transistor can be poorly linear when operating at the ends of the linear range.

This is why any good design includes consideration of linear mode range. You want to operate in the center of the linear range, which simply means that we bias the base to cause the collector to be in the middle of its optimal range, giving maximum linearity.

Summarizing so far, we have a transistor that is multiplying its base current by some factor, beta-dc or hFe, causing a proportional collector current. With this viewpoint, the amplifier is non-inverting because increasing base current causes collector current to increase.

We call the circuit inverting, however, because we want to think of the collector voltage rather than the collector current.

Remember that the transistor has an equivalent resistance. In particular, the collector-emitter resistance changes in response to stimuli on the base. In order for the collector current to increase, the equivalent resistance must decrease.

Looking at the collector-emitter circuit, you have a voltage divider, collector resistance at the top, and the sum of equivalent collector-emitter resistance and the emitter resistance at the bottom. It is easy to see that, if the collector current increases, the collector voltage must decrease. That is why we call this an inverting amplifer.

Back to the emitter resistor...

When we say "common emitter", we mean that the emitter is common and we analyze everything else. You can design and operate this amplifer with no emitter resistor, and that would be a true common (or grounded) emitter configuration. Problem is the circuit will not be stable...

First, gain varies amongst transistors, even amongst transistors of identical design. It is common to state that hFe ranges from 80 to 400, as an example. The circuit design must consider this variability. If you want predictable and stable gain, you must compensate for gain variation. You design the circuit for minimum hFe, but you look at what happens with maximum hFe.

To make matters worse, the junction voltage at any particular current varies with temperature, sometimes substantially. This means that your beautifully designed circuit is unpredictable when it gets warm, and all circuits that manipulate power, even small amounts of power, get warm. Its all a matter of degree.

There are many ways to compensate for gain variations. One of them is to use an emitter resistor. This effectively places a limit on gain by moving the primary factor for gain from the transistor to the circuit.

The gain of a common emitter amplifier is hFe. When there is an emitter resistor, however, the gain is collector resistance divided by emitter resistance. If that ratio is less than hFe, then hFe variability will not affect gain.

With straight electronics, one way to design a multiplier circuit would be with an operational transconductance amplifier, such as the CA3080, with one input driving the input pin and the other driving the gain control pin. This can be biased and calibrated to perform multiplication. Another way is to use a four quadrant multiplier chip, such as the AD834, which is based on transconductance as well, but designed specifically for multiplication. With a microcontroller, a better solution in low frequency applications, you can read the two inputs with two analog to digital converter inputs, multiply those values in software (applying whatever offset and calibration desired) and send the output to an digital converter output.

It would help to know the voltage of the motor. See related links below for motor connections.

Here they are. You count them.
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32803073940, 33369884613, 33699488382, 34138869219, 34769313410, 35936798814, 36389783673, 36814567140, 36848303284, 37077649570, 37176817132, 37443875980, 37932076910, 39258687780, 39832304070, 39929776460, 40433092970, 41723176092, 42517273020, 42896327460, 42950328330, 44493179484, 44643136671, 45164262780, 45518492292, 45801802410, 46060379105, 46471021415, 47798764884, 48142126260, 48162720060, 48519711564, 48677038774, 48769813170, 49204610910, 49603485190, 51338284020, 51540393996, 51908709398, 52153970115, 52521337260, 52563020861, 54962162892, 55272454926, 55616474355, 55765225698, 56165813970, 56606330158, 56898115365, 59524182228, 59748456105, 59894664690, 60649639455, 62584764138, 63775909530, 64344491190, 64425492495, 64484530747, 66739769226, 67398976764, 68277738438, 68702703615, 68736258049, 69538626820, 71873597628, 72779567346, 73015558161, 74155299140, 74405227785, 75864153820, 77863064097, 79664608140, 80866185940, 82908682389, 83647838547, 84248720955, 84909495237, 85900656660, 89286273342, 89841997035, 91603604820, 92120758210, 92942042830, 97354077548, 97539626340, 98409221820, 99206970380, 103817418796, 104307940230, 105126041722, 110544909852, 111232948710, 111530451396, 112331627940, 113212660316, 113796230730, 119496912210, 119789329380, 121299278910, 121692596935, 125169528276, 127551819060, 128688982380, 128850984990, 128969061494, 129771773495, 133479538452, 136555476876, 137405407230, 137472516098, 138181137315, 139413064245, 141515825395, 145559134692, 146031116322, 148810455570, 155726128194, 156461910345, 157689062583, 165817364778, 166849423065, 167295677094, 168497441910, 169818990474, 170694346095, 178572546684, 179683994070, 181948918365, 184241516420, 185884085660, 193453592241, 206208774147, 208615880460, 210252083444, 219046674483, 222465897420, 223215683355, 227592461460, 233589192291, 238993824420, 242598557820, 243385193870, 254728485711, 257701969980, 257938122988, 259543546990, 262815104305, 274810814460, 274945032196, 276362274630, 278826128490, 283031650790, 292062232644, 297620911140, 311452256388, 312923820690, 315378125166, 322422653735, 331634729556, 333698846130, 334591354188, 336994883820, 339637980948, 341388692190, 343681290245, 359367988140, 363897836730, 365077790805, 367941146027, 386907184482, 389315320485, 412417548294, 414543411945, 418239192735, 424547476185, 438093348966, 446431366710, 467178384582, 473067187749, 481153806343, 486770387740, 509456971422, 519087093980, 525630208610, 552724549260, 557652256980, 566063301580, 580360776723, 618626322441, 625847641380, 630756250332, 644845307470, 667397692260, 682777384380, 687362580490, 727795673460, 730155581610, 735882292054, 773814368964, 778630640970, 788445312915, 824835096588, 829086823890, 836478385470, 849094952370, 876186697932, 892862733420, 893571354637, 934356769164, 946134375498, 962307612686, 967267961205, 1018913942844, 1031043870735, 1051260417220, 1095233372415, 1103823438081, 1160721553446, 1167945961455, 1237252644882, 1273642428555, 1289690614940, 1374725160980, 1443461419029, 1460311163220, 1471764584108, 1557261281940, 1576890625830, 1658173647780, 1672956770940, 1698189904740, 1787142709274, 1839705730135, 1892268750996, 1924615225372, 1934535922410, 2062087741470, 2190466744830, 2207646876162, 2321443106892, 2335891922910, 2365335938745, 2405769031715, 2474505289764, 2547284857110, 2680714063911, 2886922838058, 2901803883615, 3093131612205, 3153781251660, 3311470314243, 3574285418548, 3679411460270, 3869071844820, 4124175482940, 4330384257087, 4380933489660, 4415293752324, 4467856773185, 4671783845820, 4730671877490, 4811538063430, 5094569714220, 5361428127822, 5519117190405, 5773845676116, 5803607767230, 6186263224410, 6254999482459, 6622940628486, 7217307095145, 7358822920540, 8042142191733, 8660768514174, 8935713546370, 9461343754980, 9623076126860, 10722856255644, 11038234380810, 11607215534460, 12372526448820, 12509998964918, 13245881256972, 13403570319555, 14434614190290, 16084284383466, 16557351571215, 17321537028348, 17871427092740, 18764998447377, 21651921285435, 22076468761620, 25019997929836, 26807140639110, 28869228380580, 31274997412295, 32168568766932, 33114703142430, 37529996894754, 40210710958665, 43303842570870, 53614281278220, 56294995342131, 62549994824590, 66229406284860, 75059993789508, 80421421917330, 86607685141740, 93824992236885, 112589990684262, 125099989649180, 160842843834660, 187649984473770, 225179981368524, 281474976710655, 375299968947540, 562949953421310, 1125899906842620

U= RxI U/I=R 3/1=3 P=UxI So you need a 3 Ohm resistor that can take at least 3 Watts

On the whole megger testing is non destructive. What happens is a DC voltage is applied to the device or winding under test. It is an insulation test to see is the insulation has been injured in any way to cause a short circuit when normal power is applied to it. On my megger there are 3 ranges 300V, 750V, and 1000 volts. Applying the proper voltage is essential to not damaging the device you are testing. Working voltages up to 240 volts should use the 300 range. Working voltages up to 600 volts use the 750 volt range and working voltages above 600 use the 1000 volt range. As you can see if you used the 1000 volt range on a device that had a working voltage of say 24 volts you could damage the insulation just by testing it. So meggering a device is non destructive if you use the tester as its instructions tell you to.

50 sq.mm of aluminium

and 25 to 35 sq.mm of copper

No. Transformers work in AC systems, not in DC systems.

To reduce DC voltage with a zener diode you place a resistor in series with the zener and setup for the reverse bias condition. You pick the resistor to bias the zener at the desired reverse current. You also have to consider the load across the resistor, across the zener, and across the target load. Often, this configuration is used to establish a reference voltage for something else, such as an op-amp controlled emitter-follower, but it is possible to use just the resistor and zener if you consider all the factors.

A capacitor is passive like a resistor is passive it performs no active amplification.

Mineral Turpentine Oil

The Earthing of your electric pump night not be proper or improper insulation may be the reason.

There are several different high potential (hipot) tests, but they all generally involve applying a high voltage (high electrical potential) across something being tested to determine how good an insulator the material or substance is. A vacuum inside an enclosed space can insulate materials inside that space. To cite a single example, in a variable vacuum capacitor, a glass or ceramic "bottle" with a flexible metal bellows on one end contains a pair of plate sets. By expanding or compressing the bellows assembly, one set of plates can be moved closer to the other set, both of which are inside the vacuum "bottle" of the device. This changes the capacitance of the device, and thus allows it to be used to tune a circuit. If a hipot test were conducted across the plates of the capacitor, the integrity of the insulative properties of the vacuum enclosure could be tested. If air should have leaked inside, this air would be ionized by the high voltage and the hipot test would show this. This vacuum capacitor would be ineffective in a high voltage application, like the tuning of a high power radio transmission circuit.

There is no problem using a generator to run more inductive load so long as the generator capacity can supply the needed power to the inductive loads. The inductive loads should not be switched on at the same time but there should be a little delay before another load is switched ON as inductive loads draw more power at start ON. The power factor of the inductive loads also affect the generator, hence for safe operation a power factor that is approaching 1 is desirable.

Ogu Reginald Ekene

A TVSS is a transient Voltage Suppression System. It activates in times of a high voltage condition. The high voltage condition could be caused by many things such as a lightning strike or a transformer failure.