Molecular Biology

the fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, and biogeography. These lines of evidence all point towards a shared ancestry among different species, providing support for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

Techniques of molecular biology Expression cloningOne of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is expression cloning. In this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned (using PCR and/or restriction enzymes) into a plasmid (known as an expression vector). This plasmid may have special promoter elements to drive production of the protein of interest, and may also have antibiotic resistance markers to help follow the plasmid. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation (via uptake of naked DNA), conjugation (via cell-cell contact) or by transduction (via viral vector). Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection,electroporation, microinjection and liposome transfection. DNA can also be introduced into eukaryotic cells using viruses or bacteria as carriers, the latter is sometimes called bactofection and in particular uses Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. In either case, DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the protein can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its tertiary structure can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied . Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) The polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA. In brief, PCR allows a single DNA sequence to be copied (millions of times), or altered in predetermined ways. For example, PCR can be used to introduce restriction enzyme sites, or to mutate (change) particular bases of DNA, the latter is a method referred to as "Quick change". PCR can also be used to determine whether a particular DNA fragment is found in a cDNA library. PCR has many variations, like reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) for amplification of RNA, and, more recently, real-time PCR (QPCR) which allow for quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA molecules. Gel electrophoresis Gel electrophoresis is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that DNA, RNA, and proteins can all be separated by means of an electric field. In agarose gel electrophoresis, DNA and RNA can be separated on the basis of size by running the DNA through an agarose gel. Proteins can be separated on the basis of size by using an SDS-PAGE gel, or on the basis of size and their electric charge by using what is known as a 2D gel electrophoresis. Arrays A DNA array is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a microscope slide where each spot contains one or more single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide fragment. Arrays make it possible to put down a large quantity of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a DNA fragment molecule that is complementary to a single DNA sequence (similar to Southern blotting). A variation of this technique allows the gene expression of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified (expression profiling). In this technique the RNA in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled cDNA. This cDNA is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. Since multiple arrays can be made with the exact same position of fragments they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors. For instance, the common baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, contains about 7000 genes; with a microarray, one can measure qualitatively how each gene is expressed, and how that expression changes, for example, with a change in temperature. There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of ~ 100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array. Arrays can also be made with molecules other than DNA. For example, an antibody array can be used to determine what proteins or bacteria are present in a blood sample. Allele Specific Oligonucleotide Allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) is a technique that allows detection of single base mutations without the need for PCR or gel electrophoresis. Short (20-25 nucleotides in length), labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target DNA. Hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target DNA is then washed and the labeled probes that didn't hybridize are removed. The target DNA is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation. Abandoned technology As new procedures and technology become available, the older technology is rapidly abandoned. A good example is methods for determining the size of DNA molecules. Prior to gel electrophoresis (agarose or polyacrylamide) DNA was sized with rate sedimentation in sucrose gradients, a slow and labor intensive technology requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, viscometry was used. Aside from their historical interest, it is worth knowing about older technology as it may be useful to solve a particular problem.

Organic macromolecules play an important role in human biology because they serve as the building blocks for essential structures in cells, such as DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. These molecules are involved in various biological processes, including energy production, cell signaling, and immune response. Without organic macromolecules, the components necessary for life processes would not be able to function properly.

Nitrogen dioxide is a molecular compound. It consists of covalent bonds between nitrogen and oxygen atoms.

CO is a molecular compound. It consists of a covalent bond between carbon and oxygen atoms.

DNA supports evolution because it carries genetic information. This genetic information is then passed on to offspring through DNA, which basically allows traits to be inherited, which allows natural selection to take place because the better genes survive. It carries the information and variation that ultimately fuels natural selection, driving evolution. It's like a game of telephone, with DNA as the message. Every time a message gets passed on, its like a generation. Each one is a little different. The bad players die off, and the good ones stay, until the group has pseudo-evolved into only the best.

The backbone of a polypeptide could be represented by a chain of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. The polypeptide backbone is the key contributor to protein secondary structure, which involves backbone-to-backbone hydrogen bonding.

Two non-biological examples: farting in an elevator and spraying perfume. im also looking for 2 biological examples cud you let me know if u find some.

Energy diffusing through an ecosystem.

Gene diffusion through a population.

bacteria

Erm the last time I checked "bacteria" are not plants, they are in fact a separate kingdom (about as separate as you can get). The most common model plant is Arabidopsis thaliana, but Antirrhinum are also commonly used.

Molecular physics is a branch of physics that studies the physical properties and behavior of molecules. It explores how atoms are bonded together to form molecules, their internal structure, and the interactions between molecules. Molecular physics plays a crucial role in understanding chemical reactions, materials science, and biological processes at a molecular level.

algology, mycology, palaeobotany [Brit, Cdn], paleobotany [N. Amer], phycology, pomology, pteridology.

Biology generally classified as botany and zoology in primary schools. But they are actually having a number sub categories that makes them Biology more complex. Some typical branches are Biochemistry, Microbiology, Biotechnology, Molecular biology, Virology, Immunology, Human physiology, and so on.

Taxonomy in molecular biology involves classifying and categorizing organisms based on their genetic characteristics, particularly DNA sequences. This method has revolutionized the field by providing accurate and detailed information about evolutionary relationships and species identification. By analyzing the molecular data, researchers can create more precise and informative classification systems compared to traditional methods based on physical characteristics.

Carrier proteins are proteins that bind to specific molecules and transport them across cell membranes. They are essential for facilitating the movement of molecules like ions, nutrients, and signaling molecules in and out of cells. Carrier proteins exhibit selectivity and saturation kinetics in their binding and transport activities.

The answer is unclear from the wording of the question. "Interacting with the world around us" suggests proteins, which are obtained from other living things or manufactured by cells.
The proteins in cells are the functional chemicals of life, and DNA and RNA are molecules that control protein production. Ribosomes are structures within cells that contain RNA and proteins, and that create proteins from amino acids.

There are millions of "bases" and "millions" containing nitrogen but you are probably referring to the 5 involved in De-oxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribo-Nucleic Acid RNA. These are the so called rungs of the ladder and for DNA are Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine and Guanine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by Uracil so this is the fifth. This is one of the fundamental differences between RNA and DNA. The other is the use of Ribose instead of Deoxy-Ribose. Amongst the viruses there are both double stranded RNA and single stranded DNA so the number of strands has nothing to do with a substance being DNA or RNA.

The solution to pharmacology INCLUDES molecular biology. Pharmacology is a vast and complex science. In order to understand pharmacology, you have to understand how the body works (anatomy and physiology). You have to understand how substances react with the blood (hematology and biochemistry). You have to understand how enzymes work. You have to understand how pathogens work to infect and invade the system (microbiology, virology, nematology, mycology). The foundation of pharmacology is in all of the sciences, not only molecular biology.

A systems biology team may involve specialists such as bioinformaticians, computational biologists, biophysicists, geneticists, molecular biologists, and mathematicians. Each specialist brings a unique skill set that is essential for analyzing and interpreting complex biological systems data.

Tromethamine, or TRIS, Tris Hydroxymethyl Aminomethane, THAM, etc. is a chemical with the formula c4h11no3 and molecular weight 121.14g/mol. It is often used as a buffer in chemistry and biology. It has an effective pH range of 7-9.2, and is not very harmful. It is often used

To become a cell biologist, you would typically need to take a series of biology and related courses. Some common classes would include cell biology, molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, anatomy and physiology, and advanced courses in cellular or molecular biology. It may also be beneficial to take classes in chemistry, physics, and mathematics to understand the foundational principles underlying cellular processes.

Molecules of NO2 contain covalent bonds

Most commonly a protein can be denatured due to several factors. One of the most common ways of denaturing proteins is through heat. Proteins can also be denatured by exposure to alcohol.

Filtration separates particles based on size.

Expression vectors are plasmids used to produce (heterologous expression) proteins from your gene of interest in the expression host(such as E.coli, Yeast, Human cell lines). The gene of interest cloned in this vector (at the MCS) will be transformed in to the host for protein expression. check this out for more info: