Nuclear Physics

We commonly see an isotope of americium generating alpha particles to ionize air in smoke detectors. A source generates alpha particles to ionize air in industrial settings so that the ionized air will quickly and effectively dissipate static charges. A radio pharmaceutical generates alpha particles, and the unsealed source irradiates tumors in patients that are so implanted. We find alpha particle sources in the physics lab where they are used in experiments and demonstrations. Alpha particles can be accelerated for use as "atomic bullets" in high energy physics research.

Yes, there is. Nuclear chemists are those chemists with "extra" physics knowledge and an interest and a willingness to work with radioactive materials. Much of their work is in radiation biology, as they operate with chemical tracers (that have nuclear tags) in following chemical and biochemical processes. And there is a large volume of work being done in nuclear medicine to treat cancer and some other medical conditions. The nuclear chemist is on scene. There is more to this, and a link is provided below to get you through the door and facilitate your own investigation.

A weak source of Americium-241 is found in smoke detectors. The Alpha particles, which ionise the air, are emitted from here. This causes the air to conduct electricity and a small current flows.

227Ac----- alpha decay---- 223Fr

No, not quite.

Radiation, or more specifically, radioactivity, is the instability caused by the competition between the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. The weak nuclear force also enters into the picture as well.

The strong force holds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. Residual strong force, or binding energy, holds protons and neutrons together to form atomic nuclei. This force is attractive, no matter what the charge of the particle.

The electromagnetic force is attractive for oppositely charged particles and, of more importance here, repulsive for similarly charged particles. This means that protons tend to repel each other, but the strong force overrides the electromagnetic force.

Well, sort of...

Its a function of distance. The strong force weakens much more quickly as distance increases than does the electromagnetic force. This means that, as nuclei get larger, the electromagnetic force starts to win out. This "break even" point is for atomic number 83, bismuth. Every element starting at bismuth and going up is radioactive, i.e. unstable, because the nucleus is so large that the strong force can't keep up with the electromagnetic force.

That's not the whole picture, of course, because even smaller nuclei are also radioactive. This is where the weak nuclear force enters into the equation.

The weak force establishes interactions between protons and neutrons such that the ratio of protons to neutrons in a nucleus controls the stability, i.e. radioactivity, of the nuclide. Take carbon-12, for instance. It is stable. So is carbon-13. But carbon-14 is not. The ratio is wrong, and the weak force causes beta- decay, but that's a topic for another question.

Nuclear fission of Uranium-235 is more efficient when hit by neutrons with low energy of the order of electron volts. However, neutrons coming from fission are at high energies around 2 megaelectron volt. Accordingly, the moderator is needed to slow down the neutrons coming from fission to low energy values through scattering process with moderator molecules. This is the concept of the so called "thermal nuclear reactors"

Old-style CRT televisions could potentially emit some beta rays. New "flat screen" TVs mostly don't.

If your TV is emitting gamma or alpha rays, there's something very seriously wrong with it.

Whether it's "color" or "black and white" doesn't really make much difference, since the basic principle is the same.

- radiodiagnostic
- treatment with isotopes
- isotopes as tracers
- sources of energy
and many other

It is used in smoke detectors as it cannot travel far in air. Alpha radiation is emitted and as long as the detector in the device is receiving the alpha radiation, then no smoke is present. When smoke particles are present, they interrupt the radiation, and so the detector doesn't pick up the radiation, causing the alarm to go off.

It started with water. When scientists were trying to unlock some of water's secrets, ultraviolet light detectors found sources of UV light emitted from very pure water. Further studies found that neutrinos were zipping through the pure water and were emitting UV light as a result of its reaction with water.

Basically, it was accidental, as most discoveries these days are.

The length of time we see fuel rods left in the core of a reactor will depend on the time it takes to deplete the nuclear fuel in those rods. Reactor design, specifically fuel rod design, and the rate at which the fuel is consumed during operation all have an effect. Typical life of the fuel in a nuclear reactor at a power station is several years.

false

6C14 ---------> 7N14 + -1 e0

Beta particle is emitted and carbon changes into nitrogen

Instability is due to a certain ratio between neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.

• The decay mode of Ca-37 is β+ therefore, Ca-37 transmutes naturally into K-37 by giving off a positron.

  20Ca37 → 19K37 + +1e0

• Calcium (Ca) has a total of 24 isotopes, from 34Ca to 57Ca. There are five observationally stable isotopes (40Ca, 42Ca, 43Ca, 44Ca and 46Ca), plus one isotope (48Ca) with such a long half-life that for all practical purposes it can be considered stable.

stopping the ionization cascade

modern geiger-muller tubes use a halogen gas for quenching

The electrostatic repulsion force between deuterium and tritium can be calculated using Coulomb's Law, which states that the force between two charged particles is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Since deuterium and tritium are both positively charged particles, they would repel each other. The force would depend on the charges of the particles and the distance between them.

Alpha particles are larger and heavier than beta particles, so they interact more readily with air molecules through collisions. This causes alpha particles to lose their energy more quickly and travel shorter distances in air compared to beta particles, which are smaller and lighter. Additionally, alpha particles have a higher ionization potential, leading to more interactions with air molecules and a shorter range in air.

A beta particle is an electron, with a mass of approximately 1/1840 of a proton

They are both nuclear reactions. That's just about it. Other than that they are completely different. Fission is the nuclear reaction when two atoms smash the living soul out of each other and split apart, releasing nuclear energy.

The other, fusion, involves the same things as fission, expect that extreme heat and pressure is required for it to happen. Instead of splitting each other apart nuclear fusion fuses atoms together into another compound/element, while releasing about 10 times as much energy as nuclear fission.

Californium can be used as a neutron source to detect impurities in gold and silver ores. By irradiating them with neutrons, the elements present emit characteristic gamma rays, allowing for their identification and quantification. This process helps ensure the purity and quality of gold and silver products.

In nuclear reactions, energy is usually released. This energy is released as an electromagnetic wave. Because of the large amount of energy involved, this wave has a high frequency/energy - a gamma ray.

No -- the story is utterly false.

It's difficult to know where this canard got started. Einstein did exceptionally well in mathematics from his earliest days in school. Although he rebelled against the rote learning common in German schools of the time, he always got superb grades.

The only academic failure that young Einstein experienced was when he applied for Zurich Polytechnic School at age 15 -- a year younger than was typical for applicants -- and failed the French part of the test. This should be no surprise, as he had studied French for only half a year prior to taking the exam. In addition, his marks in science and math were so impressive that he was allowed to study there even before he was formally admitted.

I was under the impression that his problem was that he was dyslexic

No evidence exists that Einstein, who was extremely capable of reading, writing, and communicating in his native German, had any form of dyslexia. Another canard that, for reasons unknown, continues.

87Fr223 ----> 2He4 + 85At219