Nuclear Physics

Radioactive elements undergo spontaneous decay, emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma particles. They have unstable nuclei and decay into more stable elements over time. Radioactive elements are used in various applications such as medical imaging, cancer treatments, and energy production.

Gamma radiation is not typically listed in the breakdown of uranium because it is a type of electromagnetic radiation emitted during radioactive decay of unstable atomic nuclei, rather than a specific component of uranium itself. The breakdown of uranium usually focuses on the types of particles emitted, such as alpha and beta particles.

Americium-241 is used in smoke detectors because it emits alpha particles that ionize the air inside the detector. This ionization process allows a small electric current to flow between two electrodes in the detector. When smoke enters the detector, it disrupts this current, triggering the alarm.

Yes. Gravitational force is proportional to the mass of the two objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Charge does not enter into the picture.

Thorium-234 does not decay into Protactinium-234. Instead, Thorium-234 naturally decays by alpha emission to Protactinium-230. The difference in decay modes is due to variances in their nuclear structures and energetics.

No, nuclear chain reactions can happen in several types of fissile materials, not just uranium. Other examples include plutonium and thorium. These materials can undergo fission reactions and sustain a self-sustaining chain reaction.

Applicators are not typically used for photon beams in radiotherapy because photons are highly penetrating and do not require collimation or shaping like electron beams. Instead, photon beams are shaped using multileaf collimators or other beam-shaping devices to conform to the tumor while sparing surrounding healthy tissues. Additionally, applicators are commonly used for electron beams to shape and modulate the dose distribution.

Hideki Yukawa was the first person to theorize that the strong nuclear force between protons and neutrons was mediated by mesons, specifically the pion. The discovery of the pion in 1947 resulted in a Nobel Prize for Yukawa in 1949.

Curium is very scarce and expensive; today curium has only limited applications:

- isotopes 242Cm and 244Cm are used as alpha particles sources for α-spectrometers mounted on spacecraft engines to analyze planetary or cosmic samples.

- precursor in the preparation of 238Pu and of isotopes of Sg, Hs, Cf, etc.

In the past some other uses were proposed.

1. Nuclear fusion is the process of combining two atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy in the process.
2. Fusion reactions are the source of energy in stars, including our Sun.
3. Scientists are working on creating controlled nuclear fusion reactions as a potential source of clean and limitless energy on Earth.
4. Nuclear fusion differs from nuclear fission, which involves splitting atomic nuclei into smaller fragments.

Yes, clothing and skin are effective barriers against alpha and beta particles emitted by depleted uranium (DU) materials. However, it's important to note that if DU particles are ingested or inhaled, they can pose a health risk regardless of protective barriers. Regular monitoring and appropriate safety measures should be in place when handling DU materials.

Phosphorus-32 is the radioactive isotope that undergoes beta decay to produce sulfur-32. During beta decay, a neutron in the nucleus of phosphorus-32 is converted into a proton and an electron, resulting in the formation of sulfur-32.

Beta hydroxy acids (BHAs) like salicylic acid are commonly used in skincare products for their exfoliating and acne-fighting properties. They work by penetrating deep into pores to unclog them, reducing inflammation and treating acne. BHAs can also help to improve skin texture and promote cell turnover for a smoother complexion.

If an element emits a beta particle, it results in the transformation of a neutron into a proton within the nucleus. This process changes the element to the one that is two elements higher in the periodic table.

An atomic bomb releases more energy than a conventional chemical bomb because the atomic bomb releases binding, or Nuclear Strong Force, energy while the conventional bomb releases chemical energy, and there is far more binding energy (hundreds and thousands of times) than there is chemical energy from the same mass of material.

Everything, so to speak, is nuclear powered, because everything ultimately gets its energy from the Sun, and the Sun's energy is fusion nuclear power. This includes the food we eat and the raw materials we are made of.

Gamma rays belong to the electromagnetic spectrum. In frequency and consequent energy the spectrum runs from very very long low energy radio waves up to the highest energy and frequencies which include gamma rays.

Somewhere between those very low energies and the highest energies lies the visible light frequencies and energies. You know them as ordinary light. And I suspect you've heard light consists of photons, which are massless.

I mention the visible light to point out that gamma rays belong to the same EM spectrum so they too are made of the same stuff that visible light is made of...photons. And photons have no mass; they are massless bits of energy.

In short, gamma particles, which are photons, have no mass. ANS.

They may become important in the future but are not at the moment. This type of reactor has been built as prototypes, but is not in commercial use. The importance is that the present type of reactors in service (mostly PWR and BWR, but also PHWR and AGR) all use Uranium 235 as the fissile material, and this may become scarce in future years, though supplies are probably secure for another 50 years or so. When natural uranium is enriched in U235 there is depleted uranium left behind, this has little 235 but is mostly 238. If this is irradiated in a fast reactor it will produce Plutonium, which can then be used as the feed fuel for that reactor and others, so securing a further supply of nuclear fuel. Water cannot be used in a fast reactor as it moderates or slows the neutrons, and liquid metals (sodium or sodium/potassium) have been experimented with. The concept does work but so far is not commercially attractive. This type of prototype experiment can only be done with government funds and at the moment there is not much activity except design studies. Quite a large prototype was built at Dounreay in Scotland but financial support was rmoved and it is now being de-commissioned. See Wikipedia 'Fast Breeder Reactor'

It takes billions of years for uranium to decay into lead. Uranium-238, the most common isotope of uranium, has a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, meaning it takes that long for half of a sample of uranium-238 to decay into lead-206.

Uranium does two things because it is unstable. It will either undergo radioactive decay, or spontaneous fission. The processes have some general similarities, but are distinctly different. And both events occur naturally, though spontaneous fission occurs much less often. Additionally, both events result in the emission of particulate and electromagnetic radiation.

Nuclear fusion, specifically the proton-proton (P-P) chain, is responsible for more than 98% of the Sun's energy. Less than 2% of the Sun's energy is estimated to come from the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Fusion Cycle, because the Sun is not massive enough to depend on the CNO cycle.

The isotope 252Cf is a very strong neutron source; some applications are:

- neutron's detectors for water and petroleum

- control of nuclear fuel rods

- treatment of some cancers by neutron irradiation

- neutron radiography in industry

- neutron activation analysis in mobile installations

This is the first step of the nuclear fission. Uranium 235 is very unstable but when an extra neutron is added the atom gets aggravated, making the atom burst creating elements and three other neutrons. These three neutrons hit other atoms, starting a very big chain reaction, and finally producing huge amounts of energy.

With our current technology not really. We do have simple Virtual Reality equipment, that can make it seem like you are in a room, with objects you can manipulate etc. but we cannot place a full human being physically into a virtual world.

The half-life of Pu-240 is about 6,560 years. This means that it takes approximately 6,560 years for half of a sample of Pu-240 to decay into a more stable isotope.