Nuclear Physics

An alpha particle is equivalent to a helium-4 nucleus, or a helium-4 ion. A difference is that an alpha particle has a certain amount of energy associated with it, so it can said to be fast or hot. The energy is measured in thousands or millions of electron volts (keV or MeV).

Decay Series

Mesons are found inside the atomic nucleus, along with protons and neutrons. They are subatomic particles made up of a quark and an antiquark, with a mass heavier than electrons but lighter than protons and neutrons. Mesons are involved in the strong nuclear force that holds the nucleus together.

No, it's slang sometimes for very large like a nuclear bid on ebay.

No. It is pro-nuclear propaganda that falls apart when you really look at the analogy.

First, not all radiation is equal. Light is radiation. Cosmic rays are radiation. Bananas contain potassium-40. The potassium-40 in bananas is not the same as that of the elements that give off radiation in nuclear reactors-iodine, cesium, uranium, plutonium, etc. That is for multiple reasons: half-lives, how they accumulate in the body (or not), dosages, etc.

Second, the BED analogy breaks down in its math. 11,000 BED per year is the equivalent of the nuclear worker's annual exposure of microsieverts. Someone would have to ingest 30 bananas per day, every day, for one year to eat 11,000 bananas. That is absurd and the nuclear industry knows it.

Third, at one point, on a blog I read, there was a discussion in the comments section between obviously pro-nuclear and anti-nuclear commenters. Almost all of the pro side were quoting BED, saying phrases similar to "Look, this particular worker at Fukushima was only exposed to the equivalency of 200 bananas in a ten minute time frame." That would be like eating 200 bananas in one immediate sitting. Even more absurd than the second point above.

Fourth, its partly about dosage. The nuclear worker isn't exposed to lethal amounts of radiation on a daily basis or even an annual basis. The potential for lethal doses to be emitted from a nuclear reactor such as Fukushima increases as the crisis deepens. If the containers fail or the cooling ponds evaporate or burn off, then the amount of radiation emitted increases.

The BED sounds good in theory until you begin to poke around in it.

Yes. Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes decay naturally. They can be induced to decay more rapidly through neutron capture, but they will decay one way or the other. Among the commonly encountered, or commonly mentioned isotopes that do this are radon-222, which comes as a gas from many kinds of rocks and is found in the basements of some buildings, carbon-14, which is used for carbon dating, and potassiom-40, which is found in all living tissue.

Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom to become charged or ionized.

The mechanism of nuclear fission is best understood by noting that a massive nucleus behaves in many respects like a drop of liquid . According to this liquid drop model , the neutron absorbed by the 92U235 nucleus gives the nucleus extra energy (like heating a drop of water.

Alpha decay involves the emission of an alpha particle (helium nucleus) from the nucleus. This reduces the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4, creating a new element. The nucleus becomes more stable due to the reduction in excess nuclear energy.

The equivalent dose measure, which attempts to relate various forms of radiation in terms of the damage they do to living tissue, rates a neutron with an energy of less than 10keV as having a value of 5. This is compared to X-rays and gamma rays, which are both rated at 1. A thermal neutron has an energy of about 0.025 keV.

It should be pointed out that this is a very, very rough assignment of value. Also, thermal neutrons are difficult to detect, and since they are not usually tested for in such an environment as a nuclear power plant, where they are most likely to be found, there may yet be things to be learned about them.

It would take 4 half-lives for a 4.0 mg sample of X to decay to 0.50 mg. Since the half-life is 2.0 years, it would take 8.0 years for this decay to occur.

No, a nuclear chain reaction refers to a self-sustaining series of nuclear fissions where the neutrons released in one reaction cause further fissions. Fusion, on the other hand, is the process of combining two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing large amounts of energy in the process.

Beta wavelengths are not stronger than visible light. In fact, beta waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with higher frequency and energy than visible light, but they are generally weaker in terms of their ability to penetrate materials and cause biological damage compared to visible light.

Materials commonly used in nuclear reactors for canning purposes include zirconium alloys for fuel cladding and stainless steels for structural support and containment. These materials are chosen for their corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and ability to withstand high temperatures and radiation exposure. Special coatings or treatments may also be applied to enhance their performance in reactor conditions.

Slow neutrons are more likely to be absorbed by nuclei in nuclear reactions compared to fast neutrons. This absorption increases the probability of inducing fission in heavy nuclei or capturing the neutron to form a new isotope. Slow neutrons are commonly used in nuclear reactors to sustain and control nuclear fission reactions.

Nuclear fission typically produces more radioactive by-products compared to nuclear fusion. This is because fission involves the splitting of large atoms into smaller, unstable fragments which can emit radiation. Fusion, on the other hand, involves the combining of light atoms to form a heavier nucleus with less unstable by-products.

Cavity wall insulation is an insulator. It is designed to fill the gap between the walls, providing thermal resistance to reduce heat loss in buildings.

Alpha particles are useful in smoke detectors because they are easily absorbed by smoke particles. When this happens, the flow of electrical current between the electrodes, said flow being comprised of alpha particles, is reduced and causes the alarm to activate.

The nuclear reaction is:

232Th--------------- 228Ra + α

Alpha particles can be stopped by a piece of metal foil due to their relatively low penetration power. This is because alpha particles have a large mass and charge, making them more likely to collide with the atoms in the metal foil and be absorbed.

The charge of an alpha particle is 2+ and the symbol is α2+.

Nuclear reactions in a decay series stop when stable isotopes are reached. These stable isotopes have a balance of protons and neutrons that do not need further decay to achieve a more stable configuration. At this point, the nucleus is no longer radioactive and does not undergo further nuclear reactions.

No, the total number of nucleons in the nucleus remains constant during a decay chain. The total number of protons and neutrons may change as individual particles are emitted during decay, but the overall number of nucleons (protons and neutrons combined) remains the same within a closed system.

PGC-1 alpha and beta can be overexpressed in skeletal muscle.

This overexpression leads to anti-inflammatory effects. Both alpha and beta reduce TNF alpha levels. TNF alpha is a pro-inflammatory substance.

When you challange muscle with inflammatory insults: Injecting LPS (lipopolysacharide, or TNF alpha, or induce muscle inflammation by downhill running) then overexpression of PGC-1 alpha and beta protect against inflammation