Nuclear Physics

Alpha and beta radiation are not included in the electromagnetic spectrum because they are composed of particles (alpha particles are helium nuclei, beta particles are electrons or positrons) and not electromagnetic waves like those included in the spectrum (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, visible light). Alpha and beta radiation are forms of nuclear radiation emitted from the decaying nucleus of an atom.

A half life pertains to the time it takes for exactly half of a substance to disappear. So, if U235 has a half life of 700 million years, it will take 700 million years for half of it to decay. That would leave .5kg or 500g.

Nuclear fission refers to the process of dividing the nucleus of an atom into two or more smaller nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy in the process. This is the principle behind nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.

Alpha particles are composed of two protons and two neutrons and have low penetrating power; beta particles are high-speed electrons or positrons with moderate penetrating power; gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation with high penetrating power; neutron emission involves the release of neutrons with no charge and high penetrating power. Each type of radiation causes different ionization effects in matter and poses different risks to human health.

A quark is currently considered an elementary particle, therefore it is not comprised of anything but is itself one of the smallest particles. However, string theory may explain more about this question.

Yes, the decay of unstable atomic nuclei is the source of nuclear radiation.

Yes, gamma rays are transverse electromagnetic waves, meaning the oscillations of the waves are perpendicular to the direction of their propagation. This is similar to other forms of electromagnetic radiation like visible light and radio waves.

Materials such as plastic, glass, or water can effectively stop beta particles with energies up to 13.5 MeV by absorbing and slowing down the particles. Thicker layers of these materials are more effective for stopping higher energy beta particles.

The 2s subshell has a higher energy level than the 1s subshell due to the presence of more nodes in the 2s orbital, which increases its energy. Additionally, the 2s orbital has a larger principal quantum number (n) than the 1s orbital, leading to greater distance from the nucleus and therefore higher energy.

The weak nuclear force is responsible for all particle decay. In a neutron, there are two down (d) and one up (u) quars with charges of -1/3 and +2/3, respectively. In a proton, there are two up and one down quark. The configuation looks like this:

N: udd

P: uud

One of the down quarks in the neutron changes into an up quark (via the W- particle) and an electron. The neutron is now a proton.

Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its analog, or antiparticle, by a photon or an uncharged boson. It's significance to special relativity could be described by saying that it is a consequence of special relativety. This classical quantum mechanical process is the creation of matter from energy according to the basic equivalence theorem, E = mc2. That said, let's look at what is arbuably one of the most "common" cases - the creation of an electron-positron pair from a high energy photon. If a photon of sufficient energy slashes through the space near an atomic nucleus, the energy (or some of it) will be converted into mass. It takes a lot of energy to make a little mass, just as converting just a tiny amount of mass into energy makes a lot of energy. In the case of the electron and the positron, the latter being an anti-electron or antimatter, the minimum energy needed to create the pair of particles is 1.022 MeV (million electron volts). This is equivalent to the rest mass of a pair of electrons. We're creating two particles, are we not? If a "hot" gamma ray (meaning a high energy one) of 1 MeV flashes by a nucleus, no electron-positron pair will appear because the energy threshold has not been met. Special relatively actually speaks to the lack of any "immune" inertial frame when considering the speed of light and how its speed is measured. Translation: the speed of light is a constant, no matter what your frame of reference. But pair production will follow quantum mechanical principles meaning a given amount of energy will be converted to mass per the mass-equivalence equation, and also that charge, spin and other quantum mechanical characteristics, the so-called quantum numbers, will be conserved.

Yes, if the nucleus is undergoing fission and releasing additional neutrons upon decay, capturing two neutrons could contribute to a chain reaction by generating more fission events and more neutrons. However, the likelihood of a chain reaction occurring also depends on the specific nucleus involved and the surrounding conditions.

Fusion occurs because two nuclei are colliding to create a new nucleus. Because the atoms are positively charged, they naturally repel each other, so high amounts of energy are required to counter-act this force.

Telecentric lenses accept ray cones where the "principal ray" is parallel to its mechanical axis because the entrance pupil is placed at infinity. For this reason an orthonormal view of the object (i.e. where no image of the object sides is present) is frequently possible.

Standard lenses generate images of different size if a same object changes its distance from the lens. On the other hand objects of different size can be viewed as if they had the same dimension, if they subtend the same viewing angle. In a telecentric system rays get into the optics only with an almost parallel-to-the-axis path. This effect is due to the specific path of the rays: in the case of common optics the geometric information "parallel" to the main optical axis shows a component on the detector plane direction, while in a telecentric lens this perpendicular component is not present at all.

You can think as if common lenses would build a correspondence between the 3-dimensional object space and the 2-dimensional detector (image) space: in the case of a telecentric lens the third dimension in object space is not displayed. Some interesting information can be found reading this tutorial online: http://www.opto-engineering.com/telecentric.php

If you are talking about beta+ decay, then the emission of a positron is accompanied with the emission of an electron neutrino.

That is the half-life - the 6 hours in this case.

That is the half-life - the 6 hours in this case.

That is the half-life - the 6 hours in this case.

That is the half-life - the 6 hours in this case.

Protons minus neutrons doesn't mean anything in chemistry. Protons plus neutrons gives the mass number. Protons minus electrons gives you the charge of an atom(ion). The number of protons are equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom and the proton number is equivalent to the atomic number.

Meitnerium is named after Austrian physicist Lise Meitner, who made significant contributions to the discovery of nuclear fission.

Four elements are not mentioned but fossils contain organic material that means carbon compounds so carbon-13 isotope is more suitable, in case of radioactive elements that isotope is most suitable which have the half life period in millions of years.

Br-84 has 35 protons and a mass of 84, beta decay would mean that you keep the same mass number (because beta is e0, -1. -1 is the protons, 0 is the mass.) Since you are not subtracting any mass, it stays the same, so, your new element will have a mass of 84.

35(protons) -(-1) will become 35+1 (because - minus - gives you plus) which means your new element will have 36 protons. Look at your periodic table, which element has an atomic number of 36? Krypton!

So, the beta decay of Br-84 is Kr-84(mass), +36(protons)

The unit used to measure the radiation given off by atoms per second is the becquerel (Bq). A becquerel is defined as one radioactive decay event per second.

There is no equation. Calcium-42 is stable and does not decay. Calcium is also much to light for alpha decay, which requires elements heavier than nickel, so no isotope of calcium undergoes alpha decay.

nuclear fission is where, i am going into a lot of detail here i found out in full extent a few days ago, you have U (uranium) 235 (isotope number) and it is floating around in the water around the reactor, the U235 now sucks up a thermal (same speed and temperature) neutron and Uranium explodes. Which releases 3 elements, heat, and 3 neutrons which all cause friction to heat up water. That water is usually 600ºF and is under about 2100lbs psi (pounds square inch) and that water heats up other water which turns turbines. It heats up other water so turbines and those items are not radioactive. Then that water is around 400ºF 900psi and is cooled off by other water under no pressure and that non-radioactive vapor forms clouds and stuff in the sky, the cooling tower near my house gives off 10,000 gallons of water a minute 80,000lbs. In the case of a "meltdown" the control room drops the control rods to suck up neutrons in water. If the Uranium is still causing heat they increase the boric acid % in the water. The acid sucks up neutrons right from uranium and gives no reaction. The tower, usually 2nd tallest on land, contains the reactor and normally can be hit by a Boeing 737 and only have a burn mark. 2.5ft concrete 3 inch steel and some lead.

Hope this answers your question =) I have more info about the Uranium and other things not mentioned.

Electrons have a mass of about 9.109389 * 10−31 grams.