Particle Physics

Valence Electrons

The first three are already know to you:

#1 Width

#2 Length

#3 Depth

#4 is Space/Time it is a combination of space and time, but at high energy states they can be separated.

The remaining 7 dimensions are not yet named or discovered, but string theory predict them using math. They are so small they cannot be seen, but gravity seems to work through them. They could be quantum dimensions and the reason why quantum theory has different laws than general relativity theory and larger scales.

The major contribution to the mass of an atom is from protons and neutrons; electrons have a known but negligible mass.

an electron is found in shells , it is a subatomic particle

It can be difficult to visualize something so small that it cannot be seen directly with any light-based instrument. But we can make a stab at it, so let's do that.

An atomic nucleus is tiny beyond anything we've ever seen. It's really, really small. But picture a fuzzy sphere hanging in space. (The electrons will not be part of the picture because they are far, far away on the scale in which an atomic nucleus would be visible.) There's a little vibrating fuzzy sphere, and something is happening to it. Is it changing shape in subtle ways?

A very short distance from the nucleus, we'll see a tiny fuzzy sphere appear almost out of nowhere. That's the alpha particle, and its much smaller than the nucleus. It is composed of a pair of protons and a pair of neutrons bound together. It's a helium-4 nucleus, but you may have figured that out. The reason it seems to "magically appear" near the nucleus is because the alpha particle is believed to escape the nucleus via the mechanism of quantum mechanical tunneling. In one moment, the nucleus is whole, though it is unstable, and the next instant it has lost some of its mass and the alpha particle appears. That little alpha particle has tunneled out of the nucleus and was not seen actually exiting the mass of that nucleus. We might add that the nucleus has just undergone a nuclear transformation, and we call it nuclear transmutation. Where one chemical element existed before, another one that is two atomic numbers down on the periodic table will be left.

That alpha particle, the one that slipped unseen from the nucleus, will appear, but it won't be still. It will materialize and be off in a flash. It comes away with a tremendous amount of kinetic energy. It's really moving! It will rocket out away from the nucleus and blow through the electron cloud like it wasn't even there. It's a helium-4 nucleus as we mentioned, and its a nucleus without electrons, but it is moving far too quickly to have a high probability of "capturing" any electrons from the atom from which it arose. It isn't taking any "baggage" with it. There will be some "shape changes" in the nucleus of the atom that the alpha particle left, but it ends up a bit smaller and as indistinct in our view as it was in the beginning.

Following the alpha particle farther out, we'll see that little guy slamming into air or whatever else is in its way. These "collisions" will be scattering events, and atoms will be ionized in the process. If any solid material is present, the alpha particle will pretty much be hammered into a stop. Alpha particles don't have a lot of penetrating power. A piece of paper will block them. The alpha particle will then snatch a couple of electrons from just about anywhere around it, and the "transformation" of that alpha particle into a helium-4 atom will be complete.

In much the same way that you tune your radio to listen to your favourite music, radio astronomers can tune their telescopes to pick up the radio waves that come from quasars, other distant galaxies and the cosmic microwave background that are millions of light years from the Earth.

As time has gone on many theories have come to terms with the atom. And as technology has improved we have looked further into the atom. Scientists are now using the LHC to see if they can create a explosion with the atom by smashing particles together to see what happened when the universe began such as the big bang theory. Using this they are looking to find out the answer to what is matter? Using the LHC they are trying to create anti-matter, this anti-matter may be the size of a golf ball and could destroy everything, but if they can create this matter it may just give the answers to what is matter and how the universe begun.

electron - electron cloud

protons and neutron- nucleus

Each chemical element has a specific number of protons; the number of protons is equal to atomic number of the element.

It represents the number of valence electrons in the atom.

protons and neutrons

In a cathode ray tube (CRT), the particles, which are electrons, originate at the heated cathode, becoming the so-called cathode rays. The electrons stream off the cathode and rush over to the anode.

Electrons have a charge of -1, protons have a charge of +1.

In an atom, the neutrons and protons are made up of up quarks and down quarks.

Strange quarks, charms quarks, top quarks, and bottom quarks also exist, but do not play as much of a role in the structure of an atom.

The question probably refers to 'the modern theory of electron clouds'. This theory is now almost a century old and is called quantum mechanics. It describes the states of electrons in an atom as 'electron clouds', so-called orbitals, which indicate the probability distribution of the electron wave function. In contrast to a naive classical picture that pictures electrons as point-like particles with given velocity and position, the quantum mechanical picture describes electrons as smeared-out matter waves following the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

The atom is made up of several subatomic particles.

The atom is made up of several subatomic particles.

The atom is made up of several subatomic particles.

The atom is made up of several subatomic particles.

The Proton, in regular hyrdogen, and also neutrons in other isotopes like deuterium.

This particle is the proton with a positive charge.

Beta particle symbols: e- or β- or B- (electrons) or e+ or β+ or B+ (positrons). If the - or + sign is omitted, assume that the beta particles are electrons.

The Greek beta character is usually preferred, but a B is acceptable if Greek fonts are not available.

They head out of the sun at nearly the speed of light

The neutrons and protons are located in the atom's nucleus.

Although several members of the revolution saw significant problems with the nucleus of the plan, they refrained from saying anything, knowing that their leader would simply fly into a rage at any backtalk.

The nucleus is the center of an atom and also its control center

A proton. A proton has a mass of 1 a.m.u. while an electron has a mass of 1/1840 a.m.u.

It simply means that electrons can only have certain energies. These "levels" are often in terms of n, such as n1, n2, n3, and so on. Let's say that n1=1000 eV (a unit for energy) and n2=2000 eV. It would be impossible for an electron in an atom to have any energy between those two values. This follows true for any energy level; this can be shown better like this: there can be no electron energy found between nx and nx+1 when the electron is in an atom.

its difficult to talk about size, when talking about such particles. Maybe someone will correct me, but my understanding is that electrons and protons have no size: we say they are point particles. They have a probability wave which shows where they are likely to appear, but I don't think they actually have a volume as, in the same way, a swimming pool or a car would have.

We can estimate the size of a nucleus, which consists of neutrons and protons, then divide that volume by the total number of nucleons, which would probably give a value of 10^-15m, but can you actually say that a free floating neutron has a volume? I don't know.

Electrons certainly dont. We say they are point charges.