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Research Papers
Includes questions related to the research, preparation and composition of formal written reports based on well researched findings and presented ideas.
3,731 Questions
What was the main objective of urdu defence society was set up in 1873?
Hindu wants to finish all the Muslim culture, religion as well as their language. they wanted to remove Urdu language from sub continent then Muslims start Urdu defense society to support for Urdu language.
What is treatment of data in research?
Treatment of data involves data collection, data organization, and testing. Sources of data must be reliable and dependable. The kind of treatment depends on the type of experiment one intends to perform and the end result.
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Your research proposal must contain enough data and evidence to show the significance of your research work.
It is unnecessary to include a full literature review inside the research proposal, but you have to summarize significant studies in your research field.
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This doesn't make sense. What lecture? What case study?
C. An online encyclopedia article or wiki
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How are different types of research described?
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH : Research can be defined as a process that is followed by a person to answer either his/her own queries or somebody else queries about a particular object, person, subject etc. The person that do the research is known as researcher and the thing about which he/she is doing research is known as area of research. WHY THIS CONCEPT CAME INTO EXISTENCE ? When a person has a strong will or keen nature to know about something he/she starts thinking : # Why did this happen ? # What will happen if it is not happened in this manner ? # Is there any alternative that can be followed to replace? If yes, what is it ? If not, then why? And to answer all these queries, all these why, how, what an individual starts to think about that particular thing (depending upon his/her area of interest) and this process continues till he/she comes out with some satisfactory result. TYPES OF RESEARCH : Types of research is a very broad concept because almost everything in this world can be a area of research depending upon one's own interest. (ADDITION BY High school Dropout)I pulled this from a study guide I made awhile back for research methods I. Perhaps it will be helpful, although I'm sure there are many more varieties (and comprehensive definitions) than just these. Actually, the whole study guide pertains to research, so here's a short version of the whole thing. Forgive me for any typos.
Research Methods Study Guide #1 Jacob Yancey 03/16/08 Part I: Culture of Research and Basic Science Concepts A. Terms a. Basic Vs Applied Research - Applied research is targeted at specific practical questions, Basic research targets knowledge for knowledge's sake. b. "Objective Measurement" - A way of obtaining data without bias. (objectivity = when a thing is the same whoever looks, which can be seen as nothing more than consensual subjectivity). c. Inductive research - taking specific pieces of collected data to a general conclusion. d. "Reviewing the Literature" - finding out about previous research pertinent to the endeavor. You do this to hopefully avoid repeating a prior experiment and wasting time.
e. Replication - Being able to reproduce the same results yourself or by other researchers. f. Causal Relationships - a direct relationship between one event (cause) and another event (effect) which is the consequence (result) of the first. g. Empirical Research - by direct observation. h. Theories Vs Hypotheses - A theory is a broad and comprehensive explanatory framework that generates numerous hypotheses, whereas a hypothesis is a specific prediction typically derived from a theory. i. Operational definition - a completely explicit description of the means and criteria used to measure the concept. Must give in all research articles. j. Empirical questions - a question that can be answered through direct observation.k. Deductive Research - having a general conclusion then looking for the data. l. "Publish or Perish" - must submit research to the scrutiny of your scientific peers. B. Concept Q's
a. What is the difference between basic and applied research. Which is most likely to produce breakthroughs in knowledge and theory? Basic research is more likely to produce breakthroughs. I imagine the reasoning behind this is that when you undertake research purely to gain information, there is a chance that you will encounter something completely new. Whereas within applied research the motive seems primarily to enhance the answers we have for specific practical questions. Applied research would seem geared toward efficiency, while basic research would seem geared toward pushing the envelope and encountering perhaps murky, but brand new ideas. b. What distinguishes an empirical question from a non empirical question? An empirical question is one that is objective, and that can be answered through direct observation; while a non empirical question would be more subjective and conceptual. c. What is an operational definition, and how is that distinct from a merely conceptual definition? An operation definition is a complete, thorough, and explicit description of the means and criteria used to measure the concept. The conceptual definition is the broader idea, and the operational definition is the replicable terms of how one has attempted to measure it. d. What is it about an operational definition that makes observations "objectively quantifiable"? By stating their operation definitions researchers make it possible for other researchers to use, criticize, or refine the measurement technique, or to compare results with other researchers who used different operational definitions to measure the same thing. Therefore, what makes observations objectively quantifiable is merely that the researcher has provided an operational definition that makes the measurement technique explicit, public, and subject to examination by the scientific community. Why is quantification (turning observations into numbers or categories) necessary for operational definitions? Once quantified, the operational definition becomes a mathematical formula that anyone can attempt. Quantification translates an operational definition into the language of mathematics which is fairly universal.
Part II: Three Basic Types of Research and the Fundamentals of Experimental Design A. Terms a. Naturalistic Observation - Observing something within its natural environment without the subject being aware, or more importantly changing its behavior because of the observation. b. Independent Variable - The variable manipulated by the experimenter. c. Levels of an IV - The different groups within an experiment. d. Individual Difference Variables - Organismic Variables. e. Within Subject Experiments - recycles subjects (uses subjects in all/both conditions). Can be complicated by sequence, practice, and fatigue effects. f. Between Subject Experiments - involves random assignment of subjects to conditions. Each subject is used for only one condition. g. Correlations Study - A study in which the researchers measure the type and strength of relationships among variables that are not under the researchers control. Cannot prove causation. h. Dependant Variable DV - Variable measured to see the effect of the IV. i.Organismic Variable - The individual differences of people in a study. j. External Validity - Typically derived from field based research; applicable to outside world but hard to prove cause and effect; generalizable. k. Negative or Inverse Correlation - (-1.00) means that the two things never had in conjunction. l. Reluctance - changes that come about by being watched. m. Experiment - Researcher manipulates a variable and measures its effect on another variable (typically to prove cause and effect). n. Extraneous Variable - the normality of uncontrollable difference (EV). o.Internal Validity - Typically derived from lab experiments, looks to prove cause and effect, but hard to apply to real world.
q. Inter observer Reliability - assesses the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon. (on a subjective thing like an essay, do teachers all give within 5 or so points?) r. Participant Observer Technique - Using a researcher in the experiment as a "fly on the wall" to participate and observer from inside the experiment. (case studies) s. Correlations Coefficient - Pearson's R. The measure of one things relation with another. t. Confounding Variable - an EV with additional properties that are correlated with the IV.u. Positive Correlation - +1.00 the things almost always happen in conjunction. v. Hawthorne Effect - specific version of reluctance in which the IV doesn't cause the effect, but the awareness of change causes the effect and increases productivity. w. Pearson's R - (Pearson's product-moment correlation) (expressed as r) between -1.00 and +1.00, the correlation coefficient. x. Quasi-Experiment - wannabe experiments, typically wanting to prove cause and effect, but do not have control of critical variables that are needed for a true experiment.
Three methods of eliminating/reducing Confounding Variables:
i. Random Assignment - Randomizes EV's across conditions ii. Hold EV's constant - involves making sure that some factors are the same across conditions and groups. iii. Manipulate EV's into IV's - makes a more complex but informative
experiment.
Part III: Sampling Theory, Measurement Theory, and Statistical Significance A. Terms a. Population - A group of interest. c. Random Sampling Vs Random Assignment - Random sampling is an issue of external validity, because if you don't randomly sample you cannot generalize your results to the rest of the world. Random assignment is an issue of internal validity; if you do not randomly assign your subjects to conditions you may create CV's that threaten the experiments internal validity and proof of causality. d. Reliability - The operational definition must be free of excessive amounts of random measurement error. e. Population Mean (or pop true score) - (pop x_) often hypothetical target f. Statistical Significance - When the researcher can be at least 95% that the effect is real. Does not equal validity. g. Sample - means of drawing, randomly or not, people from a given group into an experiment. h. Representativeness - Does the sample represent the population? i. Validity (in the context of measurement theory) - Does the operational definition measure what it is supposed to? j. Stratified Random Sampling - randomly sampling from a specific group. k. Sample Size - The higher the sample size the more likely the results are to be accurate. Must be at least 20 to be considered an accurate representation of any given group. l. Sampling Error - sample mean minus population mean.
A hypothesis is often necessary. In order to build a theory, one must either confirm or falsify hypotheses - for example, a hypothesis is not necessary to answer the question "what is the emission spectrum of X", because it can be measured directly. However, in order to answer a question like "what is the mechanism of gravity", one must identify possible answers, and proceed to test hypotheses - "the mechanism is / is not tranmission of gravitons", and so on.
In any research endeavor, there will usually be an implied hypothesis, even if there is no explicit hypothesis. If you go out and say "I am going to collect data on consumer behavior relating to X", there is an implied hypothesis thatat least there will be some trends in the behavior.
In a broad sense, research with no hypothesis whatsoever is simply random data collection, because nothing is being tested. It is possible to conduct research with no expectation or opinion on what the results might be, it is another thing entirely to conduct research without expecting to answer any question at all.
What are facts about epithelium?
It has cilia (hairs) that trap dust and woft it away from your lungs.
It creates unity and comprehensive oneness within the organisation (advantage)
keeps staff posted on the organisation's perfomance(advantage) from menzi ngobese, damelin college
Techniques involved in defining the research problem?
s a researcher, you must have often read that defining a problem is the first step in a research process. But, have you ever wondered what is meant by 'defining a problem'. Well, it simply means that the researcher has to lay down certain boundaries within which he/she has to study the problem with a pre-defined objective in mind.
Defining a problem is a herculean task, and this must be done intelligently to avoid confusions that arise in the research operation. Try to follow the below steps systematically to best define a problem:
i. State the problem in a general way:
First state the problem in general terms with respect to some practical, scientific or intellectual interest. For this, the researcher may himself read the concerned subject matter thoroughly or take the help of the subject expert. Often, the guide states the problem in general terms; it depends on the researcher if he/she wants to narrow it down to operational terms. The problem stated should also be checked for ambiguity and feasibility.
ii. Understand the nature of the problem:
The next step is to understand the nature and origin of the problem. The researcher needs to discuss the problem with those related to the subject matter in order to clearly understand the origin of the problem, its nature, objectives, and the environment in which the problem is to be studied.
iii. Survey the available literature:
All available literature including relevant theories, reports, records, and other relevant literature on the problem needs to be reviewed and examined. This would help the researcher to identify the data available, the techniques that might be used, types of difficulties that may be encountered during the study, possible analytical shortcomings, and even new methods of approach to the present problem.
iv. Go for discussions for developing ideas:
The researcher may discuss the problem with his/her colleagues and others related to the concerned subject. This helps the researcher to generate new ideas, identify different aspects on the problem, gain suggestions and advices from others, and sharpen his focus on certain aspects within the field. However, discussions should not be limited to the problem only, but should also be related to the general approach to the problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
v. Rephrase the research problem into a working proposition:
Finally, the researcher must rephrase the problem into a working proposition. Rephrasing the problem means putting the problem in specific terms that is feasible and may help in the development of working hypotheses. Once the researcher has gone through the above steps systematically, it is easy to rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms.
What are the steps in the technology design process and what is involved in each step?
After defining a problem, engineers need to research it fully. When engineers research a problem, they gather information that will help them in their tasks.
Interpret the vision of mirza?
The Vision of Mirza is one very interesting and great needs. It basically talks about the theme of love.
Why is it important to do background research during the design process?
someone else may have already solved the problem
Infiniti i30 computer problem?
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Why is keyword research important?
Keyword research is important to ensure that any pages you publish on the internet will be found by people looking for information on the topics about which you write.
All online content needs to contain keywords - these are the phrases searchers input into the search engines to find what they are looking for.
What are advantages and disadvantages of primary research?
Advantages of primary research (field research) are that it provides data that's up to date, relevant and specific to your products.
Disadvantages are that it's expensive to collect, it's time consuming, and it needs a large sample size to be accurate. business with a limit budget might compromise by using small sample groups, or carrying out field research over the telephone or pornhub
What is Kerr's model of curriculum development?
Type your answer here...
The concept of a curriculum has always been a point of great concern among educationist since the late 18th century. Many models of curriculum development have been reported in literature. For example, Classic Model, also known as Prescriptive Model (Tyler, 1949), considers curriculum development as a linear and logical activity mainly focusing on four aspects: (i) Educational purposes: a desired goals/objectives, (ii) Educational experiences: instructions & contents which act as a means of attaining these goals/ objectives, (iii) Structure of the curriculum which provides the organization of learning experiences, and (iv) Assessment and evaluation: the processes of determining learning outcomes.
Tyler (1949) work shows an inclination toward Skinner's behaviorism (1957) and John Dewey's progressive education (1963) as he says, "Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students' pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students". (Tyler 1949: 44). His model is also labeled as "Product Model" as some researchers considered his thoughts were heavily influenced by 'scientific management' which is also associated with his name.
Hilda Taba (1962) presented a model, also known as "interactive model" or "Instructional Strategies Model", which mainly focuses on the planning of instructional strategies and considers it the basis of the curriculum design. Her model includes five mutually interactive elements of teaching and learning system: (i) objectives, (ii) contents, (iii) learning experiences, (iv) teaching strategies, and (v) evaluative measures. Some of the innovative aspects of Taba's model include determining required objectives and related content, selection and organization of learning experiences in accordance with specified criteria; selection of a variety of teaching strategies and evaluation procedures and measures. Her model gives due consideration to external factors that may affect various components of a curriculum including the vicinity and community of school's location, the school district's educational policies, the goals, resources, and administrative strategies of the school, teachers' personal style and characteristics, the nature of the student population.
Wheeler (1967) has presented a cyclical model which has many similarities with linear and interactive models. The key elements of this model includes initial situation analysis, identification of aims and objectives, contents selection and organization, selection and organization of learning activities, and the assessment / evaluation process.
Walker (1971) presented a descriptive model, referred to as naturalistic by some scholars and also known as "process model". His model includes three important elements: (i) platform that provides the beliefs or principles to guide the curriculum developers (ii) deliberation which is the process of making decisions from available alternatives, and (iii) design that is the organization and structure of the curriculum. Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) another advocator of process model defines: 'A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice'. He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery. He says, "A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others. Finally, within limits, a recipe can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum." (Stenhouse 1975: 4-5). At this point he shifted from a conventional process model as he does not consider the curriculum itself as a process rather a mean through which the constructed theory is converted into teaching-learning practices.
Weinstein and Fantini (1970) proposed a model, also known as Humanistic Model, links socio-psychological factors with cognition and concerned with the group, as opposed to individuals as most students are taught in groups. The model stresses to identify the learners demographic details and their concerns. Through diagnosis, the teacher attempts to develop student-centered strategies for instruction to meet learners' concerns and organize contents around learners' concerns rather than on the demands of subject matter. He further emphasizes that the content should be organized according to the learners: life experiences, their attitudes and feelings, and the social context in which they live. Teaching procedures should be developed for learning skills, content, and organizing ideas. Teaching procedures should match the learning styles on their common characteristics and concerns). Finally, the teacher evaluates the outcomes of the curriculum: cognitive and affective objectives.
Hawes (1979) proposed a p student-centered models in which the teacher acts as facilitator rather than content authority. According to this model curriculum development is an ongoing process which is influenced by emerging theories & philosophies including theories of child behavior, theories of teaching learning, and theories of the structure of knowledge. It also includes the practices, beliefs, and experiences of those who plan the learning environment. In addition to the core elements like objectives, content, pedagogy, and evaluation the model give importance to aspects like physical situation, teacher behavior, pupil behavior, etc.
Although the curriculum development has always been a topic of K-12 education (Tyler's, 1949; Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1971), many concerns have also been reported in higher education literature as well. These concerns include over-burdened curriculum, lack of coherence, practicality, accessibility, quality and Integrity (HEC, 2012). In parallel, the business and industry leaders' concerns of inadequate skills of graduates (UNESCO, 2012), and citizen concerns about graduates' disengagement from civic life (Kerr & Blenkinsop, 2005), further revels the shortcomings of the under-graduate curriculum. Many deliberate attempts have been made to develop a curriculum model which helps to increases academic rigor, sharpen students' critical thinking and analytical reasoning, and expose them to richer subject matter. In this regard the main research strides emerge in three areas:
• Innovative instructional methods: In addition to lecture and class discussions, many innovative instructional methods have emerged in higher education including active learning, experiential learning, inquiry based learning, discovery based learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning; collaborative and cooperative learning, understanding by design, ADDIE model of Instructional Design.
• Assessment of student learning: In addition to descriptive, multiple choice and short questions, new evaluation methods have been developed to promote Bloom's higher-order critical thinking skills and other competencies required in the employment market. New methods include self-assessments, students' portfolio, open book test, case studies analysis, group projects, prototyping, technology-based evaluation, etc.
• Curriculum Coherence and Integration: The latest research bring reforms in curriculum development including integration of general education across the curriculum, integrating the disparate elements of students' learning experiences, shifting curriculum objectives from content delivery to attaining competencies, etc.
In response to the increasing popularity of constructivist learning theory (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956) and instructional design (Seels & Glasgow, 1990) in higher educational practice, Biggs' (1996) put forwards a notion of constructive alignment. Biggs adopted the idea of the alignment of instructional design from Cohen's (1987) who replaces learning with attainment (Biggs, 2002). Instructional alignment demands a precise match between what is intended to be taught, what is intended to be evaluated and what is intended to be learnt (Talbot, 2004). Whereas, constructive alignment asks for a shift from behaviourist pedagogy to constructivist pedagogy through stating the curriculum objectives in terms of the level of understanding required of a student than just listing the topics to be covered. Eisner (1991) model combines behavioral principles with aesthetic components to form a curriculum. His model based on five core elements: intentional, structural, curriculum, pedagogical, and evaluative.
Over the last few years, in higher education new curriculum models have been developed to accommodate new means of delivery, access and storage of information and to incorporate more flexibility into the existing curriculum to provide a better access to a wider range of students (Moran, 1995; Tinkler, Lepani and Mitchell, 1996; Mitchell and Bluer, 1997). Bell & Lefoe (1998), in their flexible learning curriculum design model, talk about the selection of the media to be used for content delivery. Irlbeck, Kays, Jones & Sims's (2006) "Three-Phase Design (3PD) Model" adopts a team-based approach to design, development, and delivery online courses. Their model allows designing a flexible curriculum for online delivery. Some other models proposed in literature includes inclusive curriculum, learner-centered curriculum (McCombs & Whisler, 1997), spiral curriculum (Bruner, 1996), transformational curriculum (Parker, 2003), internationalization, interdisciplinary, Project Based Learning, Standards Based Learning, Curriculum Mapping (Jacobs, 1997), Integrated Course Design (Fink, 2007) etc.
A thesis statement for veterinarian?
veternarians keep our furry family members healthy. It's a profession that requires alot of skill and knowledge of animals
