0
Solid State Physics
Solid State Physics is the branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of solid materials, especially the electromagnetic, thermodynamic, and structural properties of crystalline solids.
813 Questions
When will there be laser beams in battle?
Laser beams are already used in some military applications, primarily for target designation, range finding, and missile guidance. However, the use of laser weapons in battle is still limited due to technical challenges such as power requirements, beam divergence, and atmospheric interference. Research and development into laser weapon systems are ongoing, but widespread deployment in combat situations is not yet common.
What is the difference between working principle of XRF and XRD?
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
BRUKER AXS, INC.
5465 EAST ChERYL pARKwAY
MADISON, wI 53711-5373
USA
TEL. (+1) (800) 234-XRAY
TEL. (+1) (608) 276-3000
FAX (+1) (608) 276-3006
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.com
www.bruker-axs.com
All configurations and specifications are subject to change without notice. Order No. L88-E00058. © 2006 BRUKER AXS GmbH. Printed in Germany.
BRUKER AXS GMBh
OESTLIChE RhEINBRUECKENSTR. 49
D-76187 KARLSRUhE
GERMANY
TEL. (+49) (0)(721)595-2888
FAX (+49) (0)(721)595-4587
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.de
www.bruker-axs.de
BRUKER AXS K.K
3-9-A, MORIYA, KANAGAwA
YOKOhAMA, KANAGAwA 221-0022
JApAN
TEL. (+81) 45 453 1963
FAX (+81) 45 440 0757
www.bruker-axs.com
3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
BRUKER AXS, INC.
5465 EAST ChERYL pARKwAY
MADISON, wI 53711-5373
USA
TEL. (+1) (800) 234-XRAY
TEL. (+1) (608) 276-3000
FAX (+1) (608) 276-3006
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.com
www.bruker-axs.com
All configurations and specifications are subject to change without notice. Order No. L88-E00058. © 2006 BRUKER AXS GmbH. Printed in Germany.
BRUKER AXS GMBh
OESTLIChE RhEINBRUECKENSTR. 49
D-76187 KARLSRUhE
GERMANY
TEL. (+49) (0)(721)595-2888
FAX (+49) (0)(721)595-4587
EMAIL info@bruker-axs.de
www.bruker-axs.de
BRUKER AXS K.K
3-9-A, MORIYA, KANAGAwA
YOKOhAMA, KANAGAwA 221-0022
JApAN
TEL. (+81) 45 453 1963
FAX (+81) 45 440 0757
www.bruker-axs.com
3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD and XRF are highly complementary
materials analysis methods which, when used
together, greatly improve the accuracy of
phase identification and quantitative analysis.
The combination of both methods provides an
increase in the numbers of measured parameters,
which means that fewer assumptions are needed
for analysis. This in turn provides not only greater
accuracy of results, but also increases the range
of samples that can be measured to include
samples about which little or nothing is known in
advance.
XRD is the most direct and accurate analytical
method for determining the presence and
absolute amounts of mineral species in a sample.
Ambiguous results may be obtained however, if
the sample chemistry and/or origin are unknown.
In these cases phase identification can be difficult;
in particular, isostructural phases with similar
chemical composition will give similar powder
diffraction patterns.
In contrast to XRD, XRF provides highly accurate
information about the elemental composition
of a sample, but it cannot deliver direct phase
information. Mass-balance calculations may give
sufficient phase information in some cases, but
can also lead to meaningless results e.g. in the
presence of polymorphs.
It is the complimentary nature of the XRD and
XRFmethods which makes them a valuable
tool for quantitative phase analysis in numerous
applications ranging from scientific research
to industrial high-throughput quality control.
Particularily in mineralogical and geological
application areas, the combined use of XRD and
XRF is booming, offering completely new insights
into materials and processes. Typical examples
are the cement, minerals & mining, and industrial
minerals industries, where the quality of products
and / or efficiency of processes is governed by
both phase and elemental composition. The
combined use of XRD and XRF methods allows
the reliable analysis of materials, for which the
individual methods fail to deliver accurate and
reliable results.
Page 2
Quantitative phase and element analysis of
host/waste rocks and tailings is an important
application in the minerals and mining industry
with respect to both process optimization (e.g.
acid leaching) and environmental protection:
Mining and milling operations are responsible
for the production of billions of tonnes of waste
rock and finely crushed tailings worldwide. An
important application is the knowledge of the
relative amounts of the minerals with acid-
producing or neutralization potential for successful
acid-base accounting with respect to both the
leaching process as well as acid mine drainage,
with its detrimental effects on environment.
As an example, we report combined XRD-XRF
analysis of an intrusive rock with unknown
composition. Of particular interest was its
classification by mineral content as well as
the detection and accurate quantification of
potentially present minerals with significant acid-
producing or neutralization potential.
Powder diffraction data were recorded using a
D4 ENDEAVOR powder diffractometer equipped
with a LynxEye
TM
detector (Fig. 1); the total
measurement time required was about 5 minutes.
For phase identification and quantification,
the DIFFRAC
plus
software packages EVA,
SEARCH and TOPAS were used. Standardless
XRFmeasurements on the same sample were
performed with the S4 PIONEER and the
SPECTRA
plus
software (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: D4 ENDEAVOR diffractometer (right)
and S4 PIONEER spectrometer (left) connected
with conveyer belt. The D4 is equipped with
Super Speed LynxEye
TM
detector.
Fig. 2: EVA phase identification results.
1) Phase identification
Fig. 2 and Tab. 1 show the XRD powder data and
the phase identification results. The major rock
forming minerals plagioclase, quartz, diopside
and muscovite are easily and correctly identified
in a single default run. Note, that the highly
sensitive SEARCH algorithm clearly prefers albite
(Na-plagioclase) versus anorthite (Ca-plagioclase)
as a result of the slightly different lattice
parameters of both plagioclase solid solution
end members. Best SEARCH figure-of-merits
obtained for the individual phases were 0.65 and
1.48, respectively. Neither ore minerals nor any
K-feldspars or feldspathoids could be detected.
Tab. 1: EVA phase identification results.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
03-065-0466 (C)
Quartz low, syn
01-087-0700 (C)
Diopside, syn
01-089-5402 (C)
Muscovite 2M1
Page 3
Fig. 3: EVA combined XRD-XRF results -
comparison of calculated (column "SQD") versus
observed (column "XRF") element concentrations.
The difference is given in column "Delta".
2) Combined XRD-XRF analysis
To confirm the phase identification results,
and to obtain semi-quantitative phase amount
estimates consistent with the actual elemental
composition of the sample, combined XRD-XRF
analysis has been performed with EVA. EVA
enables semi-quantitative analysis based on the
reference-intensity-ratio (RIR) method using both
XRD as well as XRFdata simultaneously: On
scaling the maximum intensities of the ICDD PDF
patterns to the observed peaks in the powder
pattern, EVA calculates both phase and element
concentrations, and compares the latter with the
actually measured element concentrations.
Element concentrations as obtained by XRF and
used by EVA are provided in Tab. 2. Already at
first glance, the XRF data fully confirm the absence
of any significant acid-producing ore minerals
due to the minor concentrations found for heavy
elements and the absence of sulphur.
Tab. 2: Element concentrations [%] as obtained by XRF.
Oxygen
47.7
Silicon
30.0
Aluminum 9.75
Sodium
6.1
Calcium
3.66
Magnesium 0.456
Iron
1.35
Potassium
0.271
Phosphorus 0.114
Chlorine
0.0445
Titanium
0.252
Manganese 0.0173
Cobalt
0.0182
Nickel
0.0142
Strontium
0.0595
Zirconium
0.0143
Barium
0.0258
Wolfram
0.101
The results for combined XRD-XRF analysis with
EVA are shown in Fig. 3 and Tab. 3. The high Na
vs. Ca concentrations confirm the presence of Na-
plagioclase as found by XRD (diopside accounts
for about 60% of the total Ca, as calculated
by EVA). The present Na-plagioclase is most
successfully modelled using two albite phases
with different Ca amounts. Note the excellent
agreement found between the calculated and
observed element concentrations, which is better
than 1% for all elements, and therefore confirms
the correctness of the XRD phase identification
results for all phases.
The accuracy of the RIR method is limited by
several factors such as preferred orientation
effects and the quality of the ICDD PDF data used
(e.g. quality of relative intensities, I/Icor values,
idealized chemical formula).
Tab. 3: EVA semi-quantitative phase analysis
results based on combined XRD-XRF using
reference intensities as given in the ICDD PDF
patterns.
SS-VVV-PPPP
Compound Name
Phase
amounts
00-009-0466 (*)
Albite
58.2%
00-041-1480 (I)
Albite, calcian
15.4%
03-065-0466 (C) Quartz low, syn
14.0%
01-087-0700 (C) Diopside, syn
9.9%
01-089-5402 (C) Muscovite 2M1
2.6%
The most accurate quantitative results will be
obtained from a TOPAS Rietveld refinement. The
combined XRD-XRF results obtained are of high
value for defining the refinement model.
Page 4
BRUKER AXS, INC.
5465 EAST ChERYL pARKwAY
MADISON, wI 53711-5373
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3) Quantitative TOPAS refinement
Quantitative Rietveld analysis has been
performed using TOPAS, the results are shown
in Fig. 4 and Tab. 4. For the final refinement
two Na-plagioclases with different compositions
have been used to model the data to take the
elemental analysis results into account: Albite (0%
Ca) and Oligoclase (25% Ca).
From the results in Tab. 4 the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The sample can be unambiguously classified as
a quartzdiorite according to Streckeisen, see Fig. 5.
2. Combined XRD-XRF analysis and TOPAS
Rietveld refinement can allow a distinction of even
neighboring plagioclase solid solution members
(here albite and oligoclase) if present in sufficient
amounts.
The present sample can be characterised as
a rock with insignificant acid producing or
neutralisation potential. Remarkable is the easy
and reliable determination of the plagioclase type
for estimation of the neutralisation potential. This
ability is of particular interest, as anorthite has
an about 14x higher neutralisation potential than
albite (e.g. Jambor et al., 2002).
Fig. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Tab. 4: Quantitative TOPAS refinement results.
Compound Name
Phase amounts
Albite
49.6%
Oligoclase
30.5%
Quartz
9.9%
Diopside
8.8%
Muscovite
1.2%
Fig. 5: Streckeisen diagram for intrusive rocks.
Q: quartz, A: alkali-feldspar, P: plagioclase.
Reference
J.L. Jambor, J.E. Dutrizac, L.A. Groat, M. Raudsepp.
Environmental Geology (2002) 43, 1-17.
Q
A
P
granite
grano-
diorite
quartz-rich
granodiorite
quartz-
syenite
quartz-
monzonite
quartz-
monzo-
diorite
quartz-
diorite
tonalite
XRD- provides most direct analytical methol for determining presence and absolute amounts of minerals species in sample. XRD can also identify phases
XRF- provides direct information about chemical composition but cannot deliver direct phase information. Mass-balance calculations can be deducted but may lead to useless results in the presence of a polymorph.
How a gas is converted to liquid?
Advances in recent years have shown that there are even more efficient and cleaner ways to use biomass. It can be converted into liquid fuels, for example, or "cooked" in a process called "gasification" to produce combustible gases, which reduces various kinds of emissions from biomass combustion, especially particulates.
Does the crystalline structure affects the transparency of a material?
The type of crystal structure doesn't affect the transparency. For example a body centered cubic structure is no more and no less transparent than a hexagonal close packed structure. However if the block of substance is a mess of many crystal structures stuck together in no coherent order then yes it does affect the transparency.
Transparency is more dependent on the chemical bonds and the particular light that they absorb. These bond energies are unaffected (ok maybe slightly affected) by the particular crystal structure they find themselves in.
Crystal structure however does have a big influence on the index of refraction of light. You can have left refraction, right refration or even both at the same time depending on the crystal structure.
What type of electromagnetic wave has the highest velocity?
Gamma waves have the highest frequency (and energy) of all the electromagnetic waves.
Gamma Ray Bursts (GRB) from outer space (and that's about all we know of them!) have extraordinary high energies, and hence frequencies.
What is it called When melted rock becomes solid?
When melted rock solidifies, it forms an igneous rock. This process is known as crystallization.
Why cant the particles of a solid move away from each other?
Atoms and molecules in a solid have very little space between them and there is usually a strong bonding force between them. So, the particles of a solid are locked in place.
Atoms and molecules in a solid do move and the normal process is called diffusion. It is a slow process compared to movement of molecules in a gas or liquid.
There are several key features which determine the diffusivity of particles in a material. First is temperature, since the kinetic energy of each particle is proportional to temperature and hence the speed is higher at higher temperature. Second is the nature of the attraction between particles. If particles are electronically bonded or if there is a strong ionic attraction, the the energy necessary to break two particles apart may be very high and if the kinetic energy (due to temperature) is much lower than the binding energy of the constituent particles, there is little chance they will separate. Most normal solids, like glass, ice, salt, iron and others, have a binding that is much stronger than anything that can be overcome by normal human temperature. Obviously, all of these materials can be heated to a melting point, at which time the kinetic energy is near enough to the binding energy that movement substantially increases.
Solid state diffusion has another important component and that is the space available for the movement of the constituent particles. Even with relatively weak binding forces, a particle may be inhibited from moving simply because the adjacent particles are packed so tightly together that there is no easy or unobstructed path. It was demonstrated long ago that even idealized hard spheres will solidify at high density and in that case there is no attraction at all and the diffusion drops greatly at the point of solidification.
If door knob is a metal then it is conductor if not like wood then insulator.
What state of matter is a balloon?
Gas... bubbles are formed when water (or another liquid substance) are heated up and then turned to gas. When water on a fire heats up at the bottom of a container that water turns to gas before the water at the top. Since gas is lighter than water it rises in the form of a bubble and pops at the surface.
So bubbles are in the state of gas, surrounded or covered by a 'membrane' (a thin cover) of liquid
What is the time period of a pendulum which oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds?
Period of a pendulum (T) in Seconds is:
T = 2 * PI * (L/g)1/2
L = Length of Pendulum in Meters
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
PI = 3.14
The period is independent of the mass or travel (angle) of the pendulum.
The frequency (f) of a pendulum in Hertz is the inverse of the Period.
f = 1/T
Which set of properties best describes a solid?
A solid has a definite shape and volume, strong intermolecular forces, and particles that are closely packed and arranged in an organized manner. Unlike liquids and gases, solids maintain their shape and do not flow or take the shape of their container.
What is meant by Tana position?
The Tana position refers to a certain stance or posture used in yoga where the practitioner kneels down and sits back on their heels with the tops of their feet flat on the ground. It is often used in various yoga poses and can help improve flexibility in the hips and ankles.
No, LED stands for light-emitting diode, which can produce a range of colors depending on the materials used in the diode. While some LEDs emit a single color (monochromatic), many are designed to emit multiple colors.
Can only metals be used to make a solar cell?
No. You could make a solar cell out of any chemical that has a positive photo-reaction. However metals (and more importantly, combinations of metals) have the greatest half-cell potentials that make exploiting light induced ionization potentials particularly easy in the solar cell realm of business.
What do you call the resting position where the bar rests?
The resting position where the bar rests in weightlifting is called the "rack position."
What are 8 properties of matter?
It has non-zero (finite) mass and volume. hardness, state, malleability, ductility, melting point, boiling point, crystal form, solubility, viscosity, and density and... texture, luster, vapor pressure, odor (this is, arguably, a chemical property, too), dimensions, temperature
Why pager has better battery life?
Because a pager is just a radio receiver and not a radio transmitter. A cell phone or a cordless phone are both a receiver and a transmitter. A receiver uses much less battery power than a transmitter does. And because a pager's disposable alkaline battery holds more power than a cell phone or cordless phone's rechargeable battery.
Exactly right! As long as there's a 'net' force ... that means anything left over that's
not zero after all the forces present are added up.
So let's not forget the Newton's law that says that there's an equal and opposite
reaction for every action.
In this particular case, the action is the force that the liquid exerts on the container,
and the reaction is an equal and opposite force that the container exerts on the liquid.
The two forces are equal and opposite, so they add up to zero. There's no net force
where they meet, so nothing accelerates.
If the force of the liquid is so great that the material of the container can't provide
an equal, opposite reaction, then the material of the container falls apart, and the
liquid accelerates all over the place.
Does helium dissipate from balloons?
yes because helium needs air around it under it in it on it to float and stay alive, but it doesn't.
What kind of substance can be separated by physical processes?
wheat. The process is known as willowing and separates the wheat from the chaff.
Gold. The process is known as panning and separates the gold from silt.
uranium. The process is known as enriching and separates the docile U238 from the nasty U235
What is the most resonant metal?
Titanium is considered one of the most resonant metals due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, which allows it to vibrate freely while maintaining its structural integrity. It is often used in musical instruments such as guitars and mandolins to produce clear and vibrant tones.
What is the dielectric constant of Silver?
The dielectric constant of silver is approximately 5.86. This value represents the ability of silver to store electrical energy in an electric field. Silver is a good conductor of electricity, so its dielectric constant is relatively low compared to insulating materials.
Yes, laser beams exist. They are intense beams of light with specific properties that make them useful in various applications such as cutting, welding, medical procedures, and communication technologies.
What is the forbidden energy gap?
The forbidden energy gap refers to the energy range within a material where electron states are not allowed to exist. This gap prevents electrons from moving freely and conducting electricity. Materials with larger forbidden energy gaps are typically insulators, while materials with smaller gaps or none are conductors or semiconductors.
Dislocation density is the areal density of dislocations intersecting a plain, usually the free surface, given as number per cm2.
It may also be the volume density of dislocation line segments, given as the total length of dislocations divided by the containing volume (also 1/cm2), but this is rarely used in semiconductor physics, and more frequently found in engineering.
Dislocation density is typically measured by etching the free surface to form pits around the location at which the dislocation breeches the surface, and is termed etch pit density, or EPD.
