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veterinary medicine

 
Dictionary: veterinary medicine
 
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n.

The branch of medicine that deals with the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and injuries of animals, especially domestic animals.


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US History Encyclopedia: Veterinary Medicine
 
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The Indians of North America had no domestic animals until they captured progeny of horses and cattle that had escaped from Spanish explorers during the early sixteenth century, and their animals received only the most primitive veterinary care. Animals brought to the Virginia and New England colonies with the first settlers arrived in a nearly disease-free environment and, despite generally poor care, disease did not become widespread until the late seventeenth century.

Europe had no veterinary schools before 1760, but self-tutored cow doctors and farriers plied their trade and wrote books, some of which found their way to America, and a few early colonists gained local recognition for prowess in animal doctoring. A Virginia lawsuit of 1625, when a William Carter was brought to court over a cow he had guaranteed to cure, provides what is likely the first reference to such a practitioner.

The first American work to discuss animal disease, the anonymous Husband-man's Guide (1710), devoted a dozen pages to "The Experienced Farrier." An early work of some consequence, because it and others of its genre retarded the development of scientific veterinary medicine for nearly a century, was The Citizen and Countryman's Experienced Farrier (1764) by J. Markham, G. Jeffries, and Discreet Indians, which essentially rehashed a wretched British work, Markham's Maister-peece (1610).

Few serious animal diseases broke out in America before 1750; one of the first was "horse catarrh" (equine influenza, still a periodic problem) in 1699 and again in 1732 in New England. Canine distemper is said to have originated in South America in 1735 and by 1760 caused many deaths among dogs along the North Atlantic seaboard. In 1796–1797 a "very fatal" form of feline distemper (a different disease) appeared in New York and Philadelphia, where an estimated nine thousand cats died before it spread over most of the northern states. Rabies, or hydrophobia, was recorded as early as 1753 and reached alarming proportions in many areas by 1770. About 1745 a "mysterious malady" attacked cattle from the Carolinas to Texas and decimated local herds along the way to northern markets. This likely was piroplasmosis (Texas fever), a blood disease transmitted by the cattle tick, which later threatened the entire cattle industry of the United States.

America's first veterinary surgeon was John Haslam, a graduate of the Veterinary College of London (established 1791) who came to New York in 1803. His few writings in the agricultural press mark him as one whose rational practice was ahead of its time. As in Britain, few considered veterinary medicine a fit pursuit for educated persons, and by 1850 only a dozen or so graduate veterinarians practiced in America. Until about 1870 the numerous agricultural journals, several of which advertised "a free horse doctor with every subscription," supplied most contemporary information on animal disease.

In 1807 the eminent physician Benjamin Rush advocated the establishment of a school of veterinary medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, but this did not materialize until 1884. George H. Dadd, a British medical man who had emigrated to America and turned to veterinary practice about 1845, opened a proprietary school, the Boston Veterinary Institute, in 1855. The school had only six graduates when it closed in 1858, and Dadd became better known for two of his several books, The American Cattle Doctor (1850) and The Modern Horse Doctor (1854). Dadd was an early advocate of rational medical treatment and humane surgery, including the use of general anesthesia. Dadd also founded and edited the American Veterinary Journal (1851–1852; 1855–1859). The first veterinary journal to have real impact was the American Veterinary Review, established in 1875 by Alexandre Liautard. The American Veterinary Medical Association purchased the Review in 1915 and since has published it as the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

Organized veterinary medicine had its shaky beginning in Philadelphia in 1854, when Robert Jennings, a nongraduate practitioner, helped found the American Veterinary Association. This group was superseded in 1863, when a separate group founded the U.S. Veterinary Medical Association (USVMA) in New York with a London graduate, Josiah H. Stickney of Boston, as its first president. In 1898 the USVMA, which had only belatedly attracted proper support by the still-fledgling veterinary profession, changed its name to the American Veterinary Medical Association. In the years since it has had a major influence on veterinary education and practice.

The veterinary educational system in the United States began with a series of some two dozen proprietary schools, which until 1927 had about eleven thousand graduates, who, for many years, made up the majority of the profession. Following the ill-fated attempt in Boston and another in Philadelphia (1852, no graduates), the New York College of Veterinary Surgeons (1857–1899) became the first viable school, although the American Veterinary College (New York, 1875–1898) soon overshadowed it. Most successful were the schools in Chicago (1883–1920) and Kansas City (1891–1918), with about 4,400 graduates. These schools depended entirely on student fees, offered a two-year curriculum, and emphasized the study of the horse. At the turn of the century, increasing demands for an extension of the period of instruction to three and then four years (now six), together with a broadening of scope to include the study of other species, spelled the doom of schools lacking university support.

Iowa State University founded the first of the university schools (1879), followed by the University of Pennsylvania (1884). By 1918 nine more schools had opened at land grant universities in Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Alabama, Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and Georgia. Increasing demand for veterinary services after World War II resulted, by 1975, in the establishment of a school at Tuskegee Institute and eight at land-grant institutions, mostly in the Midwest, with more schools in the planning stage.

After 1750, records indicate numerous local outbreaks of animal disease, serious enough in some areas to cause considerable hardship, but the isolation of settlements and continuing availability of new land kept animal disease at tolerable levels nationally. The rise of large-scale animal disease in the United States in about 1860 in part explains the formation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1862 and its Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) in 1884. The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 accelerated the establishment of agricultural colleges, and most of the twenty-two in existence by 1867 offered instruction in veterinary science. Unusually competent educators and researchers staffed many of these departments, such as James Law of Cornell, and many of their early students became prominent veterinary scientists.

With Daniel E. Salmon as its first chief, the BAI formed when efforts by the states to stem the rising tide of animal plagues proved inadequate, threatening the livestock industry of the entire nation with extinction. Contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle originated with a single cow imported from England to New York in 1843, and a major outbreak in Massachusetts in 1859 stemmed from four imported Dutch cows. By 1880 the disease had spread to most of the states east of the Mississippi, and the BAI's first task was to eradicate it by slaughtering infected and exposed cattle, which it accomplished in 1892.

After Theobold Smith discovered the protozoan cause of Texas fever in 1889, Fred L. Kilborne proved, in about 1893, that the cattle tick was the necessary vector in the disease's transmission. Delineation of the tick's life cycle by Cooper Curtice then paved the way for control of the disease by dipping cattle to kill the ticks.

Hog cholera originated in Ohio in 1833, infecting herds throughout the United States by 1870, when losses in the Midwest exceeded $10 million annually. BAI scientists began searching for its cause in 1884, eight years before any viral cause of disease had been demonstrated; discovery of the hog cholera agent in 1904 led to its control by vaccination. However, the use of virulent virus in vaccine maintained a reservoir of the disease, and in 1960 the country began a program of total eradication. In 1974, with the program completed, experts declared the country completely free of hog cholera.

In less than two decades, BAI veterinarians found the means for combating three distinct types of animal plagues by three vastly different means: a bacterial disease by slaughter, a viral disease by vaccination, and, for the first time in the history of medicine, a protozoan infection by elimination of the vector. In the ensuing years veterinarians also eradicated by slaughter several outbreaks of socalled exotic diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease in cattle. These efforts have been successful—the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in England in 2000 did not affect livestock in the United States.

Veterinary practice, which began with self-denominated farriers and cow doctors (who often called themselves veterinary surgeons), shifted to the hands of graduates who, from 1870 to about 1920, were concerned primarily with the horse. Practitioners dealt mainly with individual animals, and veterinary medicine remained more of an art than a science. Attention increasingly turned to cattle and pet animal practice. After World War II employment opportunities for veterinarians broadened greatly, and many graduates entered such areas as public health, laboratory animal medicine, zoo animal practice, medical research, and various specialties including radiology, ophthalmology, and equine practice.

Few women became veterinarians during the early 1900s. By 1950 they constituted only about 4 percent of the workforce, but by 1970 they made up more than 20 percent of student enrollees and increased thereafter. Between 1900 and 1996, 60 percent of veterinary school graduating classes were women. By 1999 about 30 percent of the 59,000 veterinarians in the United States were women, and the numbers were still rising.

Bibliography

Bierer, Bert W. A Short History of Veterinary Medicine in America. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. 1955.

Dunlop, Robert H. A Short History of Veterinary Medicine in America. St. Louis: Mosby, 1996.

Smithcors, J. F. The American Veterinary Profession: Its Background and Development. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1963.

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: veterinary medicine
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veterinary medicine, diagnosis and treatment of diseases of animals. An early interest in animal diseases is found in ancient Greek writings on medicine. Veterinary medicine began to achieve the stature of a science with the organization of the first school in the field in Lyons, France, in 1761, followed soon by similar schools in other parts of Europe. In the United States, veterinary schools came into existence about the time of the Civil War, and there are now a number of accredited schools of veterinary medicine affiliated with colleges and universities. In 1884 the Bureau of Animal Industry was established in the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture to deal with animal disease problems in the fast-growing livestock industry. Veterinary research has made important contributions to medical science in general. Vaccination methods devised by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch for animals were found effective for humans also. Veterinarians inaugurated the inspection of meat and milk to prevent the spread of tuberculosis. The development since World War II of live-virus and modified live-virus vaccines and of antibiotics, sulfonamides, and other biological products has brought about a marked change in veterinary medicine. An important innovation was the mass immunization of poultry through sprays, dusts, and agents added to drinking water. Many animal diseases hitherto considered incurable can now be prevented or controlled by these new therapeutic agents, and this in turn has greatly increased the output of livestock and poultry products.

Bibliography

See The Merck Veterinary Manual (7th ed. 1991).

 
Veterinary Dictionary: veterinary medicine
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The study of the diseases of animals including their diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Nowadays this is supplemented by the study of the medicine of herds and flocks as units.

  • clinical v. m. — the study of disease by direct examination of the living patient.
  • emergency v. m. — that specialty which deals with the acutely ill or injured animal which requires immediate veterinary treatment.
  • experimental v. m. — study of the science of healing diseases based on experimentation in animals.
  • forensic v. m. — the application of veterinary knowledge to questions of law; in human medicine this is an important subject, called also medical jurisprudence, legal medicine. There is no real counterpart in veterinary science or veterinary medical education, except that most veterinary colleges teach a small segment of a course on the subject.
  • group v. m. — the practice of veterinary medicine by a group of veterinarians, usually representing various specialties, who are associated together for the cooperative diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease.
  • internal v. m. — that dealing especially with diagnosis and medical treatment of diseases and disorders of internal structures of the body.
  • legal v. m. — see forensic veterinary medicine (above).
  • nuclear v. m. — that branch of veterinary medicine concerned with the use of radionuclides in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
  • patent v. m. — a drug or remedy protected by a trademark, available without a prescription.
  • physical v. m. — that branch of veterinary medicine using physical agents in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It includes the use of heat, cold, light, water, electricity, manipulation, massage, exercise and mechanical devices.
  • preclinical v. m. — the subjects studied in veterinary medicine before the student observes actual diseases in patients.
  • preventive v. m. — science aimed at preventing disease.
  • proprietary v. m. — any chemical, drug, or similar preparation used in the treatment of diseases, if such article is protected against free competition as to name, product, composition or process of manufacture by secrecy, patent, trademark, or copyright or by other means.
  • space v. m. — that branch of aviation medicine concerned with conditions to be encountered by animals in space.
  • sports v. m. — the field of veterinary medicine concerned with injuries sustained in athletic endeavors, including their prevention, diagnosis and treatment.
  • state v. m. — veterinary medical services supplied by the government.
  • tropical v. m. — veterinary medical science as applied to diseases occurring primarily in the tropics and subtropics.
 
Wikipedia: Veterinary medicine
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"Animal hospital" redirects here. For the BBC television show, see Animal Hospital.

Please also see Veterinarian for a North American perspective, and Veterinary surgeon for an U.K. perspective.

A cat after surgery, the second one in three days. Antibiotics and morphine are delivered via various intravenous drips.

Veterinary medicine is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals. Veterinary science is vital to the study and protection of animal production practices, herd health and monitoring the spread of disease. It requires the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge in multiple disciplines and uses technical skills directed at disease prevention in both domestic and wild animals.

Veterinary medicine is that branch of science,which deals with the application of medical,diagnosic,therapeutic principles to pet,domestic,wildlife and livestock animals.

The field of veterinary medicine is a highly competitive yet under employed field of medicine. Today’s veterinarians are doctors who are highly educated to protect both the health of animals and humans. The skills of highly qualified veterinarians are in constant demand and job opportunities within this field are endless. In order to be considered a qualified veterinarian there are many preparations to complete, the road is long and treacherous, and the competition is steep. Additionally, the career continues to change in dynamic, from income trends to gender distribution, these changes impact the field as a whole.

Contents

History

A pillar in Vaishali, India, displaying edicts of Emperor Asoka (272—231 BCE); the pillar records King Asoka building hospitals for both humans and animals.

"The Simplicity Equine," a portable operating table for horses used by the field veterinarians of the US Army Signal Corps in World War I.

An injured horse being secured to the vertically oriented table.

With the table rotated to its horizontal orientation and supported by a drum on one side and folding cot-like legs on the other, a veterinarian operates on a horse.

The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of the Vedic period in India offer the first written records of veterinary medicine.[1] One of the edicts of Ashoka reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[2] The Talmud[3] does state that no merries were exported from Egypt in Roman times without being subjected to a hysterectomy, wich tend to prove that successful surgery was implemented in such a early period.

Modern Veterinary Medicine

Veterinary science helps human health through the careful monitoring of livestock, companion animal and wildlife health. Emerging zoonotic diseases around the globe require capabilities in epidemiology and infectious disease surveillance and control that are particularly well-suited to veterinary science's "herd health" approach.

Entrance to an animal hospital in Massachusetts displays the traditional veterinarian Rod of Asclepius

Some animal hospitals have segregated waiting rooms for dogs and cats

A veterinary surgeon in Cambridge, UK at work with a black cat.

Patient, with clouded eyes, on day five of hospital stay as she recovers from second surgery.

Same patient after one week of hospital stay and third surgery. Eyes have cleared up.

Same patient, same day, in play. Yellow bandage protects intravenous insertion sites.

Patient awaiting discharge after completing 11 days in the hospital.

Patient back home where she is protected against her (and others') better instincts in a cage until the sutures from her multiple surgeries are removed. Cage is provided with kitty litter, food, and water.

Veterinary medicine is informally as old as the human/animal bond but in recent years has expanded exponentially because of the availability of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic techniques for most species. Animals nowadays often receive advanced medical, dental, and surgical care including insulin injections, root canals, hip replacements, cataract extractions, and pacemakers.

Veterinary specialization has become more common in recent years. Currently 20 veterinary specialties are recognized by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), including anesthesiology, behavior, dermatology, emergency and critical care, internal medicine, cardiology, oncology, ophthalmology, neurology, radiology and surgery. In order to become a specialist, a veterinarian must complete additional training after graduation from veterinary school in the form of an internship and residency and then pass a rigorous examination.

Veterinarians assist in ensuring the quality, quantity, and security of food supplies by working to maintain the health of livestock and inspecting the meat itself. Veterinary scientists occupy important positions in biological, chemical, agricultural and pharmaceutical research.

In many countries, equine veterinary medicine is also a specialized field. Clinical work with horses involves mainly locomotor and orthopedic problems, digestive tract disorders (including equine colic, which is a major cause of death among domesticated horses), and respiratory tract infections and disease.

Zoologic medicine, which encompasses the healthcare of zoo and wild animal populations, is another veterinary specialty that has grown in importance and sophistication in recent years as wildlife conservation has become more urgent.

Today’s Veterinarian

Mostly from AVMA's Animal Health, A Career in Veterinary Technology Also from Jim Steele's Professional Identity and Professionals’ Workplace Learning: A Theoretical Proposal

According to consumer surveys, veterinarians rank across the country[which?] as one of the most respected career paths. Veterinarians take an oath in which one swears to use their knowledge and skills for the overall benefit of society through protecting the health needs of every species of animal and also environmental protection, food safety, and public health. Today’s veterinarians are dedicated to working long difficult hours to live out this oath in their respective practices[4].

There are many personal attributes that contribute to a successful career in veterinary medicine the most important being, a scientific mind, good communication skills, and management experience. Having a scientific mind consists of having an inquiring mind and a keen sense of observation. A career in veterinary medicine means a lifelong pursuit in scientific learning, so an interest in the biological sciences is a must and a genuine love and understanding of animals is crucial. Good communication skills are vital because veterinarians should be able to meet, talk, and work well with a variety of personalities and characters. Compassion is essential for success in the career field because they will be working directly with their animal client’s human owners, who most likely have strong bonds with their pets. Many of the fields within the career require the veterinarians to manage other employees and businesses as a whole. These positions are made more rewarding and simpler if one has a background in basic management or leadership positions [5] .

A study was performed in attempts to discover professional identity and professionals’ workplace learning based on a theoretical proposal. Veterinarians were found to approach workplace learning differently according to two key variables: perceived alignment with professional identity and perceived importance to professional practice. Differences were evident when comparing how DVMs approached learning about the medical aspects of their profession in contrast to practice management that consisted of non-medical disciplines that are a definite part of veterinary practice. It was common for these DVMs to associate their professional identity with scientific, medical, clinical disciplines but less common for these veterinarians to include the non-medical disciplines[6].

For this study, two men by the names of Hoskin and Anderson-Gough in 2004 helped to lay a foundation with their explanation in the effects of disciplinary action on workplace learning. They found that educational systems that produce members of established disciplines tend to be highly specialized. This then resulted in significant influence on the type of content that is transmitted in the process of becoming qualified to practice a professional discipline. Furthermore, according to two men by the names of Lewis and Klausner in 2003 it was found that veterinary schools in the United States recognize that it is their role to be gatekeepers of the profession. They are beginning to understand the full responsibility for selecting candidates who have the skills to capitalize on their education and build a successful career. It is their responsibility because it is their institution that has a significant amount of influence in the type or personality of the individual that will then graduate with a degree to practice animal medicine. This personality is then directly correlated to whether or not the graduate succeeds in their profession or does not succeed[7].

Overview of Veterinary Medicine

From The Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians.

An animal hospital in North Smithfield, Rhode Island

As in the human health field, veterinary medicine (in practice) requires a diverse group of individuals to meet the needs of patients. In the year 2006, veterinarians held about 62,000 jobs. According to the America Veterinary Medical Association, about 3 of 4 veterinarians were employed in either an individual practice or a group practice. The other 1 of 4 was employed within the various other veterinary practices. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics provides data that the Federal Government employs around 1,400 civilian veterinarians. These federally employed veterinarians were mostly placed into the US Departments of Agriculture, Health and Human Services, and Homeland Security. State and local governments also employ veterinarians within the following departments, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies[8].

Employment is expected to increase more than average and much faster in comparison to other career options, ensuring job opportunities in the field of vet medicine. It has been stated that this expected increase in near 35% over the next decade. This increase is a direct result of the increase of certain pet populations such as cats, the increased amount of pet owners willing to purchase pet insurance, which then increases the amount of treatment that the owner is willing to fund. Additionally, modern veterinary medicine has caught up to human medicine in many areas such as cancer treatment, preventative dental care, hip replacements, transplants, and blood transfusions. These medical advances have encouraged pet owners to take advantage of these new medical possibilities, likewise increasing the need for veterinary because of the increased demand. One other area of increased demand for veterinarians in seen in the continued support for public health and food and animal safety, national disease control programs, and biomedical research on human health problems[9].

These job opportunities can be expected because there are only 28 accredited Veterinary medicine schools in the US, creating stiff competition for admittance into veterinary school. This small number of schools results in a limited number of graduates each year averaging around 2,700 each academic year[10].

There continues to be a steady trend in the different fields of veterinary medicine, which doctors go into these respective fields, and what hours they usually take on to work. New graduates continue to be attracted to companion-animal or small animal practice because they prefer to work with pets and live/work in metropolitan areas. Therefore, employment opportunities are good in cities and suburbs but tend to be better in rural areas because fewer veterinarians compete to for work in those areas. Beginning veterinarians may take positions requiring evening or weekends to accommodate the extended hours of practice that many places offer. Then there are some veterinarians that take salaried positions in retail stores offering veterinary services whereas others that are self-employed have to work long and hard to establish a good client base. The number for large animal veterinarians is much less than that of companion or small animal veterinarians. This is directly correlated to the simple fact that most people do not want to live/work in rural or isolated areas. Nevertheless job prospects are great in the large-animal practice because of the previously stated tendencies. Finally, veterinarians with training or qualifications in food safety and security, animal health and welfare, and public health and epidemiology should have the best opportunities for a career within one of the departments of the Federal Government [11].

Threatening Veterinary Shortage

From USA Today, Vet Shortage Threatens Food System

A shortage of veterinarians who treat farm animals is stressing the nation’s food inspection system. This shortage is becoming so severe that it is prompting the federal government to offer bonuses and cover moving expenses to fill hundreds of empty employment opportunities. The result of this shortage is mainly due to veterinarians choosing to live in metropolitan areas and pursue a practice specializing in pets or small animals. The main scarcity is seen in veterinarians who treat farm animals or work as government inspectors. This then results in the shortage is most severe in the USA’s Farm Belt, which is in the rural areas if the Midwest that is responsible for much of the nations meat production[12].

The American Veterinary Medical Association reported that there are roughly 500 counties that have large populations of food animals but no veterinarian to treat these animals. The common concern of a lesser salary in the farm animal field was disproven by the statistics showing that starting salaries for private practice veterinarians are generally higher then that of public practice veterinarians but after about 10 years of practice they roughly even out. The Bureau of Labor Statistics also reports that the number of veterinarians needed will just continue to increase to 22,000 by the year 2016. This would make it one of the fastest growing professions. The nations 28 veterinarian schools provide around 2,500 graduates a year, something that hasn’t changed in three decades. However something that has changed is the fact that the baby boomer generation, the generation that fills the employment for farm animals mostly, is retiring fast and therefore hastening the shortage [13].

Gender Distribution

From New York Times, Women Soon to be Majority of Veterinarians

Veterinary medicine back in the day used to be a man’s world. Nowadays most students in veterinary school are women and it was in 2005 that women become the majority. For instance, out of the 77 new doctors from Tufts University 62 of them are women, 75 percent of 2002’s graduates were women, and 81 percent of those from the University of California at Davis were women. According to the Employment Policy Foundation, the number of female veterinarians since 1991 has more then doubled the number to 24,356, while the number of male veterinarians has fallen 15 percent to 33,461. This trend will continue based on the statistics of the applicant pool and the gender distribution in the various veterinary schools[14].

Women have also made these increased strides in other professions such as law and medicine, where the distribution is half and half but the number of women in veterinary medicine is shocking. Many veterinary students have reported that the reason for this is because veterinary salaries are not as competitive as those of other medical professions. Veterinarians average $70–80,000 a year whereas physicians can easily average $150,000 a year. This shift in gender distribution can also be attributed to the personality of this career and the qualities that would result in the most successful practice. Additionally, women are attracted to the flexible scheduling and part time physicians are not very common but part time veterinarians are[15].

The shift of women becoming the majority in veterinary medicine have some negative effect in areas such as farm animal and food industry veterinarians causing them to suffer. This is because women tend to not go into these fields and consequently the shortage that is produced has negative effects on the community as a whole [16].

Earnings

Mostly from AVMA Journals, Income Trends
Also from The Bureau of Labor Statistics,Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-2009 Edition

Veterinarians’ incomes continued to increase from 2005-2007 but this increase is not expected to continue as much in the years of 2007-2009 [17]. Salaries in the field of veterinary medicine vary depending on the individuals experience, responsibility, location geographically, and field of employment [18]. In particular at the end of 2007, veterinarians who worked in private practice earned more in comparison to many other areas of public practice and men still earned more then women [19].

Furthermore, according to the survey done by the American Veterinary Medical Association, the average starting salaries of new graduates in 2006 depended upon their respective fields of practice. The Bureau of Labor Statistics in the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-2009 Edition recorded the following

Large animals, exclusively: $61,029
Small animals, predominantly: 57,117
Small animals, exclusively: 56,241
Private clinical practice: 55,031
Large animals, predominately: 53,397
Mixed animals: 52,254
Equine (horses): 40,130

In addition in May 2006 the annual earnings of veterinarians was $71,990. This data ranges between fields, specialties, experience, and many other factors but the middle 50 percent noted in the data provided earned $43,530 and $94,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less then $43,530 and the highest 10 percent earned more then $133,150. In particular, the average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Government was $84,335 [20].

Veterinary incomes are up across the board but some areas of employment are doing better then some and the reasons for why this is the case was explored.

From AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

From AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

The average income for private practice rose from $105,510 in 2005 to $115,447 in 2007. These increased values exceed those of public practice including uniformed services and government [21].

From AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

From AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

On almost the same scale of income disparities between specialists and non-specialists are men and women.

For AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

From AVMA Survey, Katie Burns

The Road to Becoming a Veterinarian

Mostly from AVMA, A Career in Veterinary Technology
Also from The Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians

The road to becoming a veterinarian is long and hard because veterinarians must obtain a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree and a state license. There is ample preparation one must complete before one is able to achieve this feat, and furthermore the competition for admission into veterinary school is very steep. Individuals who are interested in pursuing a career in veterinary medicine must graduate with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from a 4-year program at an accredited college of veterinary medicine. There are currently only 28 colleges in the US that meet the accreditation standards set by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA).

An alternative to becoming licensed veterinarian with a doctorate would be becoming a veterinary technician. Veterinary technicians are, essentially, veterinary nurses and are graduates of two or four year college-level programs and are legally qualified to assist veterinarians in many medical procedures. Veterinary assistants are not licensed by most states, but can be well-trained through programs offered in a variety of technical schools.

The prerequisites for admission to veterinary programs vary from school to school. But interestingly enough, many programs do not require a bachelor’s degree for entrance. Instead they all require a number of credit hours that range from 45 to 90 semester hours at the undergraduate level. However, most of the students admitted have completed an undergraduate program and earned a bachelor’s degree. So despite the fact that a bachelors degree is not required, applicants without a degree face a difficult task gaining admittance and are at an extreme disadvantage.

Pre-veterinary courses should have placed emphasis on the study of the sciences. Veterinary schools typically require applicants to have taken classes in organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, biochemistry, general biology, animal biology, animal nutrition, genetics, vertebrate embryology, cellular biology, microbiology, zoology, and systemic physiology. Additionally, some programs require calculus and on the other hand some require only statistics, college algebra and trigonometry, or pre-calculus. Most veterinary schools also require some courses in English or literature, other humanities, and the social sciences as a basic background education. Furthermore, it is being seen more and more that courses in general business management and career development have become a standard part of the curriculum in order to teach new graduates how to effectively run a practice and give them those valuable tools for their future plans.

In addition to satisfying pre-veterinary course requirements, applicants must submit test scores from standardized tests such as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT), or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). The decision as to which test should be taken depends solely on the requirement of the college to which the applicant is applying. As of 2007, 22 schools require the GRE, 4 require the VCAT, and 2 accept the MCAT.

Admission to veterinary school is highly competitive with the number of qualified applicants admitted varying from year to year [22]. This is in direct correlation to the fact that the number of accredited veterinary colleges has remained largely the same since 1983, but the number of applicants has risen significantly. This has resulted in the statistic that only about 1 in 3 applicants were accepted into veterinary school in 2005 and approximately 80% of admitted students are female. Most veterinary schools require their applicants to submit application through the Veterinary Medical College Application Service (VMCAS) [23].

New graduates with a DVM cannot begin to practice veterinary medicine until they have received their license. In order to be licensed one must receive a passing grade on a national board examination, the North America Veterinary Licensing Exam. This exam must be completed over the course of eight hours and consists of 360 multiple-choice questions. This exam covers all aspects of veterinary medicine as well as visual material designed to test diagnostic skills. Most new graduates, however, do choose to enter a 1-year internship. Interns receive a small salary but often find that their internship experience leads to better paying opportunities later. Additionally, veterinarians who then wish to pursue board certification, must complete a 3- to 4-year residency program that provides intensive training in one of the 20 AVMA-recognized veterinary specialties. These specialties include internal medicine, oncology, pathology, dentistry, nutrition, radiology, surgery, dermatology, anesthesiology, neurology, cardiology, ophthalmology, preventive medicine, and exotic small-animal medicine.

When the application committee sits down to decide who gains admittance and who doesn’t, many schools place heavy emphasis and consideration on a candidate’s veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience is most particularly an advantage to the applicant. Formal experience consists of work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusiness, research, or some area of health science. Less formal experience is also helpful for the applicant to have and this includes working with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter, basic overall animal exposure [24].

Admittance Comparison Between Veterinary and Medical School

From both MedSchoolReady.com and Division of Undergraduate Studies at Penn State

It is common knowledge that admittance into either one of these professional schools is a definite struggle and the competition is stiff. However, one would be interested to know the similarities and differences between the admittance rates of these highly competitive medically focused professional school.

The preparation for veterinary school is immense and the likelihood of acceptance in not favor of the applicant. Nationwide in 2007, approximately 5.750 applicants competed for the 2.650 seats in the 28 accredited US veterinary schools. This statistic results in nationwide acceptance rate of 46 percent, less then half [25].

Likewise the preparation for medical school begins long before one fills out an application and the chances of gaining admission is slim. The seats are filled on a first come first served basis, so getting the application in as early as one can helps tremendously. Meaning as applications come in and interviews are given spots are filled. Therefore as the competition continues to increase, the number of seats continues to decrease. Medical school applications have decreased by about 8,000 from 45,000 applicants in 1994 to 37,000 applicants in 2005, while enrollment numbers have stayed consistent. Acceptance rates have increased from 38% to 48%, resulting in almost half of all applicants gaining admission to medical school but still having the odds of less then half [26].

Similarly both professional schools require mostly the same science and mathematic based prerequisites and emphasize importance in the same areas, such as academic record, experience, scores on standardized tests, and letters of recommendation. However, the difference lies in the level of competition. For admission in veterinary school the numbers competing are much smaller but the seats available are also much fewer then in comparison with medical school. Despite that fact, the overall acceptance rates are very similar. Both are less then half and they only vary by two percentage points.

WICHE: Veterinary School Financial Alternative

From Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE

The Professional Student Exchange Program (PSEP) is one of three exchange programs of the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE). Western states, in particular, can place their residents who are pursuing professional, graduate, and undergraduate programs, which are not available to them in their own state, at a financial disadvantage. These exchange programs are designed to help students in these disadvantageous situations another financial option and placing them on a more fair and even playing field. This is done so by providing the outbound students and their families the option to save money through reduced tuition arrangements[27].

The Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education is based out of Boulder, Colorado and works hand in hand with 15 states to expand educational access and excellence for all of the citizens in the West region. WICHE promotes innovation, cooperation, resource sharing, and sound public policy among states and institutions. WICHE strengthens higher education’s contributions to the region’s social, economic, and civic life. The states that participate in WICHE include: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming[28].

If selected to receive support, WICHE exchange students pay reduced levels of tuition. This usually consists of paying resident tuition in public institutions or reduced tuition at private schools. The home state of the students then pays a support fee to the admitting schools to help cover the cost of the students’ education. Another advantage that WICHE students receive is that they are given some preference in admission selection process. Each state determines just how many fields and students they are willing and able to support. The fields that are to be chosen from are as follows dentistry, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, physical therapy, physician assistant, podiatry, and veterinary medicine[29].

In further detail for veterinary medicine in particular, a maximum WICHE support is limited to four academic years. The following states are in compliance with the WICHE program and will support students who wish to pursue a DVM Arizona, Hawaii, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. States with additional support arrangements include North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. The following veterinary Schools are those who are willing to receive students under support of the WICHE program University of California Davis, Colorado State University, Oregon State University, and Washington State University[30].

Applying for support from the WICHE program is a technical process. If the field of study one wishes to pursue is supported by their state, they would then want to contact their state certifying officer for an application Certification by their individual state. This confirms only that they are a resident according to the definition established by their state, making them eligible for the exchange if sufficient funds are available in their state. This certification is important because some schools will not consider applications from nonresidents without this certification[31].

In most states, the deadline for receiving completed applications for this certification is October 15 of the year preceding their admission. However, a few states have earlier deadlines or accept late applications. In order to be sure of when their respective state deadline is, one would need to contact their state-certifying officer. In addition to applying for certification, they must also apply for admission to the schools of their choice that participate in WICHE’s Professional Student Exchange Program and then follow all the necessary steps to be considered a certified WICHE student at their schools of interest [32].

Notes

  1. ^ Thrusfield, page 2
  2. ^ Finger, page 12
  3. ^ Talmud Bably, tractate Chulin
  4. ^ "A Career in Veterinary Technology." Animal Health. 1 Apr. 2008. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/animal_ health/brochures/careers/technology_brochure.asp>.
  5. ^ "A Career in Veterinary Technology." Animal Health. 1 Apr. 2008. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/animal_ health/brochures/careers/technology_brochure.asp>.
  6. ^ Steele, Jim. Professional Identity and Professionals’ Workplace Learning: A Theoretical Proposal (24 February 2008): 1-8. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. George Fox University. Panama City, FL. 9 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Professional Identity in Veterinary Medicine; Entry #1.
  7. ^ Steele, Jim. Professional Identity and Professionals’ Workplace Learning: A Theoretical Proposal (24 February 2008): 1-8. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. George Fox University. Panama City, FL. 9 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Professional Identity in Veterinary Medicine; Entry #1.
  8. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  9. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  10. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  11. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  12. ^ Cauchon, Dennis. "Vet Shortage Threatens Food System." USA Today 28 Feb. 2008. USA Today. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://usatoday.printthis,clickablility.com/pt/cpt? action=cpt&title=Ve...ay.com%2Fnews&2Fnation%2F2008-02-28-vetshortage _N.htm&partnerID=1660>.
  13. ^ Cauchon, Dennis. "Vet Shortage Threatens Food System." USA Today 28 Feb. 2008. USA Today. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://usatoday.printthis,clickablility.com/pt/cpt? action=cpt&title=Ve...ay.com%2Fnews&2Fnation%2F2008-02-28-vetshortage _N.htm&partnerID=1660>.
  14. ^ Zhao, Yilu. "Women Soon to be Majority of Veterinarians." New York Times 9 June 2002. Melissa Kaplan's Herp Care Collection. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.anapsid. org/vets/vetdermos.html>.
  15. ^ Zhao, Yilu. "Women Soon to be Majority of Veterinarians." New York Times 9 June 2002. Melissa Kaplan's Herp Care Collection. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.anapsid. org/vets/vetdermos.html>.
  16. ^ Zhao, Yilu. "Women Soon to be Majority of Veterinarians." New York Times 9 June 2002. Melissa Kaplan's Herp Care Collection. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.anapsid. org/vets/vetdermos.html>.
  17. ^ Burns, Katie. "AVMA Survey Measures Income Trends to 2007." AVMA Journals (1 January 2009): Javma News. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jan09/090101a.asp>.
  18. ^ "A Career in Veterinary Technology." Animal Health. 1 Apr. 2008. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/animal_ health/brochures/careers/technology_brochure.asp>.
  19. ^ Burns, Katie. "AVMA Survey Measures Income Trends to 2007." AVMA Journals (1 January 2009): Javma News. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jan09/090101a.asp>.
  20. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  21. ^ Burns, Katie. "AVMA Survey Measures Income Trends to 2007." AVMA Journals (1 January 2009): Javma News. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jan09/090101a.asp>.
  22. ^ "A Career in Veterinary Technology." Animal Health. 1 Apr. 2008. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/animal_ health/brochures/careers/technology_brochure.asp>.
  23. ^ "A Career in Veterinary Technology." Animal Health. 1 Apr. 2008. American Veterinary Medical Association. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.avma.org/animal_ health/brochures/careers/technology_brochure.asp>.
  24. ^ "Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition: Veterinarians." Bureau of Labor Statistics. 18 Dec. 2007. United States Department of Labor. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.bls.gov/oco.ocos076.htm>.
  25. ^ Griel, Lester C. "Advising Notes." Division of Undergraduate Studies. 7 Apr. 2008. The Pennsylvania State University. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.psu.edu/dus/anvet.htm>.
  26. ^ "Medical School Application Process." MedSchoolReady.com. 1 2007. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.medschoolready.com/app/applicationprocess.asp>.
  27. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.
  28. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.
  29. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.
  30. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.
  31. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.
  32. ^ "Professional Student Exchange Program and WICHE." (21 February 2008): 1-25. ERIC: Education Resources Information Center. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. Boulder, CO. 2 Mar. 2009 <http://www.eric.ed.gov/> Path: Search Terms: Wiche Program; Entry #3.

References

See also

External links

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