veterinary medicine

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The Indians of North America had no domestic animals until they captured progeny of horses and cattle that had escaped from Spanish explorers during the early sixteenth century, and their animals received only the most primitive veterinary care. Animals brought to the Virginia and New England colonies with the first settlers arrived in a nearly disease-free environment and, despite generally poor care, disease did not become widespread until the late seventeenth century.

Europe had no veterinary schools before 1760, but self-tutored cow doctors and farriers plied their trade and wrote books, some of which found their way to America, and a few early colonists gained local recognition for prowess in animal doctoring. A Virginia lawsuit of 1625, when a William Carter was brought to court over a cow he had guaranteed to cure, provides what is likely the first reference to such a practitioner.

The first American work to discuss animal disease, the anonymous Husband-man's Guide (1710), devoted a dozen pages to "The Experienced Farrier." An early work of some consequence, because it and others of its genre retarded the development of scientific veterinary medicine for nearly a century, was The Citizen and Countryman's Experienced Farrier (1764) by J. Markham, G. Jeffries, and Discreet Indians, which essentially rehashed a wretched British work, Markham's Maister-peece (1610).

Few serious animal diseases broke out in America before 1750; one of the first was "horse catarrh" (equine influenza, still a periodic problem) in 1699 and again in 1732 in New England. Canine distemper is said to have originated in South America in 1735 and by 1760 caused many deaths among dogs along the North Atlantic seaboard. In 1796–1797 a "very fatal" form of feline distemper (a different disease) appeared in New York and Philadelphia, where an estimated nine thousand cats died before it spread over most of the northern states. Rabies, or hydrophobia, was recorded as early as 1753 and reached alarming proportions in many areas by 1770. About 1745 a "mysterious malady" attacked cattle from the Carolinas to Texas and decimated local herds along the way to northern markets. This likely was piroplasmosis (Texas fever), a blood disease transmitted by the cattle tick, which later threatened the entire cattle industry of the United States.

America's first veterinary surgeon was John Haslam, a graduate of the Veterinary College of London (established 1791) who came to New York in 1803. His few writings in the agricultural press mark him as one whose rational practice was ahead of its time. As in Britain, few considered veterinary medicine a fit pursuit for educated persons, and by 1850 only a dozen or so graduate veterinarians practiced in America. Until about 1870 the numerous agricultural journals, several of which advertised "a free horse doctor with every subscription," supplied most contemporary information on animal disease.

In 1807 the eminent physician Benjamin Rush advocated the establishment of a school of veterinary medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, but this did not materialize until 1884. George H. Dadd, a British medical man who had emigrated to America and turned to veterinary practice about 1845, opened a proprietary school, the Boston Veterinary Institute, in 1855. The school had only six graduates when it closed in 1858, and Dadd became better known for two of his several books, The American Cattle Doctor (1850) and The Modern Horse Doctor (1854). Dadd was an early advocate of rational medical treatment and humane surgery, including the use of general anesthesia. Dadd also founded and edited the American Veterinary Journal (1851–1852; 1855–1859). The first veterinary journal to have real impact was the American Veterinary Review, established in 1875 by Alexandre Liautard. The American Veterinary Medical Association purchased the Review in 1915 and since has published it as the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

Organized veterinary medicine had its shaky beginning in Philadelphia in 1854, when Robert Jennings, a nongraduate practitioner, helped found the American Veterinary Association. This group was superseded in 1863, when a separate group founded the U.S. Veterinary Medical Association (USVMA) in New York with a London graduate, Josiah H. Stickney of Boston, as its first president. In 1898 the USVMA, which had only belatedly attracted proper support by the still-fledgling veterinary profession, changed its name to the American Veterinary Medical Association. In the years since it has had a major influence on veterinary education and practice.

The veterinary educational system in the United States began with a series of some two dozen proprietary schools, which until 1927 had about eleven thousand graduates, who, for many years, made up the majority of the profession. Following the ill-fated attempt in Boston and another in Philadelphia (1852, no graduates), the New York College of Veterinary Surgeons (1857–1899) became the first viable school, although the American Veterinary College (New York, 1875–1898) soon overshadowed it. Most successful were the schools in Chicago (1883–1920) and Kansas City (1891–1918), with about 4,400 graduates. These schools depended entirely on student fees, offered a two-year curriculum, and emphasized the study of the horse. At the turn of the century, increasing demands for an extension of the period of instruction to three and then four years (now six), together with a broadening of scope to include the study of other species, spelled the doom of schools lacking university support.

Iowa State University founded the first of the university schools (1879), followed by the University of Pennsylvania (1884). By 1918 nine more schools had opened at land grant universities in Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Alabama, Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and Georgia. Increasing demand for veterinary services after World War II resulted, by 1975, in the establishment of a school at Tuskegee Institute and eight at land-grant institutions, mostly in the Midwest, with more schools in the planning stage.

After 1750, records indicate numerous local outbreaks of animal disease, serious enough in some areas to cause considerable hardship, but the isolation of settlements and continuing availability of new land kept animal disease at tolerable levels nationally. The rise of large-scale animal disease in the United States in about 1860 in part explains the formation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1862 and its Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) in 1884. The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 accelerated the establishment of agricultural colleges, and most of the twenty-two in existence by 1867 offered instruction in veterinary science. Unusually competent educators and researchers staffed many of these departments, such as James Law of Cornell, and many of their early students became prominent veterinary scientists.

With Daniel E. Salmon as its first chief, the BAI formed when efforts by the states to stem the rising tide of animal plagues proved inadequate, threatening the livestock industry of the entire nation with extinction. Contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle originated with a single cow imported from England to New York in 1843, and a major outbreak in Massachusetts in 1859 stemmed from four imported Dutch cows. By 1880 the disease had spread to most of the states east of the Mississippi, and the BAI's first task was to eradicate it by slaughtering infected and exposed cattle, which it accomplished in 1892.

After Theobold Smith discovered the protozoan cause of Texas fever in 1889, Fred L. Kilborne proved, in about 1893, that the cattle tick was the necessary vector in the disease's transmission. Delineation of the tick's life cycle by Cooper Curtice then paved the way for control of the disease by dipping cattle to kill the ticks.

Hog cholera originated in Ohio in 1833, infecting herds throughout the United States by 1870, when losses in the Midwest exceeded $10 million annually. BAI scientists began searching for its cause in 1884, eight years before any viral cause of disease had been demonstrated; discovery of the hog cholera agent in 1904 led to its control by vaccination. However, the use of virulent virus in vaccine maintained a reservoir of the disease, and in 1960 the country began a program of total eradication. In 1974, with the program completed, experts declared the country completely free of hog cholera.

In less than two decades, BAI veterinarians found the means for combating three distinct types of animal plagues by three vastly different means: a bacterial disease by slaughter, a viral disease by vaccination, and, for the first time in the history of medicine, a protozoan infection by elimination of the vector. In the ensuing years veterinarians also eradicated by slaughter several outbreaks of socalled exotic diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease in cattle. These efforts have been successful—the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in England in 2000 did not affect livestock in the United States.

Veterinary practice, which began with self-denominated farriers and cow doctors (who often called themselves veterinary surgeons), shifted to the hands of graduates who, from 1870 to about 1920, were concerned primarily with the horse. Practitioners dealt mainly with individual animals, and veterinary medicine remained more of an art than a science. Attention increasingly turned to cattle and pet animal practice. After World War II employment opportunities for veterinarians broadened greatly, and many graduates entered such areas as public health, laboratory animal medicine, zoo animal practice, medical research, and various specialties including radiology, ophthalmology, and equine practice.

Few women became veterinarians during the early 1900s. By 1950 they constituted only about 4 percent of the workforce, but by 1970 they made up more than 20 percent of student enrollees and increased thereafter. Between 1900 and 1996, 60 percent of veterinary school graduating classes were women. By 1999 about 30 percent of the 59,000 veterinarians in the United States were women, and the numbers were still rising.

Bibliography

Bierer, Bert W. A Short History of Veterinary Medicine in America. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. 1955.

Dunlop, Robert H. A Short History of Veterinary Medicine in America. St. Louis: Mosby, 1996.

Smithcors, J. F. The American Veterinary Profession: Its Background and Development. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1963.

The study of the diseases of animals including their diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Nowadays this is supplemented by the study of the medicine of herds and flocks as units.

• clinical v. m. — the study of disease by direct examination of the living patient.
• emergency v. m. — that specialty which deals with the acutely ill or injured animal which requires immediate veterinary treatment.
• experimental v. m. — study of the science of healing diseases based on experimentation in animals.
• forensic v. m. — the application of veterinary knowledge to questions of law; in human medicine this is an important subject, called also medical jurisprudence, legal medicine. There is no real counterpart in veterinary science or veterinary medical education, except that most veterinary colleges teach a small segment of a course on the subject.
• group v. m. — the practice of veterinary medicine by a group of veterinarians, usually representing various specialties, who are associated together for the cooperative diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease.
• internal v. m. — that dealing especially with diagnosis and medical treatment of diseases and disorders of internal structures of the body.
• legal v. m. — see forensic veterinary medicine (above).
• nuclear v. m. — that branch of veterinary medicine concerned with the use of radionuclides in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
• patent v. m. — a drug or remedy protected by a trademark, available without a prescription.
• physical v. m. — that branch of veterinary medicine using physical agents in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It includes the use of heat, cold, light, water, electricity, manipulation, massage, exercise and mechanical devices.
• preclinical v. m. — the subjects studied in veterinary medicine before the student observes actual diseases in patients.
• preventive v. m. — science aimed at preventing disease.
• proprietary v. m. — any chemical, drug, or similar preparation used in the treatment of diseases, if such article is protected against free competition as to name, product, composition or process of manufacture by secrecy, patent, trademark, or copyright or by other means.
• space v. m. — that branch of aviation medicine concerned with conditions to be encountered by animals in space.
• sports v. m. — the field of veterinary medicine concerned with injuries sustained in athletic endeavors, including their prevention, diagnosis and treatment.
• state v. m. — veterinary medical services supplied by the government.
• tropical v. m. — veterinary medical science as applied to diseases occurring primarily in the tropics and subtropics.

• Disciplines and Specialties - veterinary medicine: science of prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries of animals, esp. domestic animals

"Animal hospital" redirects here. For the BBC television show, see Animal Hospital.

A veterinary technician in Ethiopia shows the owner of an ailing donkey how to sanitize the site of infection.

Veterinary medicine is the branch of science that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals. The scope of veterinary medicine is wide, covering all animal species , both domesticated and wild, with a wide range of conditions which can affect different species.

Veterinary medicine is widely practiced, both with and without professional supervision. Professional care is most often led by a veterinary physician (also known as a vet, veterinary surgeon or veterinarian), but also by paraveterinary workers such as veterinary nurses or technicians. This can be augmented by other paraprofessionals with specific specialisms such as animal physiotherapy or dentistry, and species relevant roles such as farriers.

Veterinary science helps human health through the monitoring and control of zoonotic disease (infectious disease transmitted from non-human animals to humans) and veterinary scientists often collaborate with epidemiologists.

Contents 1 History 2 Veterinary workers 2.1 Veterinary physicians 2.2 Paraveterinary workers 2.3 Allied professions 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 5.1 Introductory textbooks and references 5.2 Monographs and other speciality texts 5.3 Veterinary nursing, ophthalmology, and pharmacology 5.4 Other fields related to veterinary medicine 6 External links

History

An injured horse being secured to "The Simplicity Equine" portable operating table in its vertically oriented position during World War I

The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and Vedic literature in ancient India offer one of the first written records of veterinary medicine.^[1] (See also Shalihotra) One of the edicts of Ashoka reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) made two kinds of medicine (चिकित्सा) available, medicine for people and medicine for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."^[2]

Veterinary workers

Veterinary physicians

Main article: Veterinary physician

An Afghan veterinarian assesses the health of a cow in Baraki Barak District, Afghanistan.

Veterinary care is usually led by a veterinary physician (usually called a vet, veterinary surgeon or veterinarian). This role is the equivalent of a doctor in human medicine, and usually involves post-graduate study and qualification.

In many countries, the local nomenclature for a vet is a protected term, meaning that people without the prerequisite qualifications and/or registration are not able to use the title, and in many cases, the activities that may be undertaken by a vet (such as animal treatment or surgery) are restricted only to those people who are registered as vet. For instance, in the United Kingdom, as in other jurisdictions, animal treatment may only be performed by registered vets (with a few designated exceptions, such as paraveterinary workers), and it is illegal for any person who is not registered to call themselves a vet or perform any treatment.

Most vets work in clinical settings, treating animals directly. These vets may be involved in a general practice, treating animals of all types; may be specialized in a specific group of animals such as companion animals, livestock, laboratory animals, zoo animals or horses; or may specialize in a narrow medical discipline such as surgery, dermatology, laboratory animal medicine, or internal medicine.

As with healthcare professionals, vets face ethical decisions about the care of their patients. Current debates within the profession include the ethics of purely cosmetic procedures on animals, such as declawing of cats, docking of tails, cropping of ears and debarking on dogs.

Paraveterinary workers

US and South African army veterinary technicians prepare a dog for spaying.

An eye exam of a kitten under way prior to the kitten's adoption.

Main article: Paraveterinary workers

Paraveterinary workers, including veterinary nurses, technicians and assistants, either assist vets in their work, or may work within their own scope of practice, depending on skills and qualifications, including in some cases, performing minor surgery.

The role of paraveterinary workers is less homogeneous globally than that of a vet, and qualification levels, and the associated skill mix, vary widely.

Allied professions

A number of professions exist within the scope of veterinary medicine, but which may not necessarily be performed by vets or veterinary nurses. This includes those performing roles which are also found in human medicine, such as practitioners dealing with musculoskeletal disorders, including osteopaths, chiropractors and physiotherapists.

There are also roles which are specific to animals, but which have parallels in human society, such as animal grooming and animal massage.

Some roles are specific to a species or group of animals, such as farriers, who are involved in the shoeing of horses, and in many cases have a major role to play in ensuring the medical fitness of the horse.

See also

• One Health

By country

• Veterinary medicine in the United Kingdom
• Veterinary medicine in the United States

Notes

1. ^ Thrusfield 2007, p. 2.
2. ^ Finger 2001, p. 12.

References

Introductory textbooks and references

• Aspinall, Victoria; Cappello, Melanie; Bowden, Sally; Jeffery, Andrea (forward) (2009), Introduction to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Textbook, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7020-2938-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=PQcWZ8DWencC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Boden, Edward; West, Geoffrey Philip (1998), Black's veterinary dictionary, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-389-21017-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=rxAD2cWqYI0C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Done, Stanley H. (1996), Color atlas of veterinary anatomy: The dog & cat, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7234-2441-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=qPzNxjVfAk8C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Dyce, Keith M.; Sack, Wolfgang O.; Wensing, Cornelis Johannes Gerardus (2010), Textbook of veterinary anatomy, Saunders, ISBN 978-1-4160-6607-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=Hb1BXjgb0McC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Fenner, William R. (2000), Quick reference to veterinary medicine, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-397-51608-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=1ziEbRYWNbwC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Lawhead, James B.; Baker, MeeCee (2009), Introduction to veterinary science, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-1-4283-1225-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=GuuMWGmOGBsC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Pfeiffer, Dirk (2009), Veterinary Epidemiology: An Introduction, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-7694-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=62T3xPDXhA0C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Radostits, O. M.; Gay, C. C.; Blood, D. C.; Arundel, J. H.; Hinchcliff, Kenneth W (2000), Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses, 9th edition, Elsevier Health Sciences. Pp. 1877, ISBN 0702026042, http://books.google.com/books?id=Kqw2gCZFfhoC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0 

Monographs and other speciality texts

• Dunlop, Robert H.; Malbert, Charles-Henri (2004), Veterinary pathophysiology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-2826-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=NWI4UoxAkGgC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Eurell, Jo Ann Coers; Eurell, Jo Ann; Frappier, Brian L.; Dellman, Horst-Dieter (25 May 2006), Dellmann's textbook of veterinary histology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-7817-4148-4, http://books.google.com/books?id=FnS4uiOlRT0C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Foreyt, William J.; Foreyt, Bill (2001), Veterinary parasitology reference manual, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-2419-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=paZZ6k_fOi4C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Gupta, Ramesh Chandra (2007), Veterinary toxicology: basic and clinical principles, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-370467-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=NgMX__L3q40C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Hirsh, Dwight C.; Maclachlan, Nigel James; Walker, Richard L. (2004), Veterinary microbiology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-0379-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=FYdWYCUOFxsC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Hunter, Pamela (2004), Veterinary Medicine: A Guide to Historical Sources, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Pp. 611, ISBN 0754640531, http://books.google.com/books?id=TLyFllgGgu0C&printsec=frontcover&cad=0 
• Merck, Melinda D. (2007), Veterinary forensics: animal cruelty investigations, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-8138-1501-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=eNYWGcQ4L5oC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Murphy, Frederick A. (1999), Veterinary virology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-511340-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=w6xWOGoP2RMC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Nicholas, Frank W. (2009), Introduction to Veterinary Genetics, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-6832-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=12AddRR_wu8C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Robinson, Wayne F.; Huxtable, Clive R. R. (2004), Clinicopathologic Principles for Veterinary Medicine, Cambridge University Press. Pp. 452, ISBN 0521548136, http://books.google.com/books?id=a9DZRAkV25QC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0 
• Slatter, Douglas H. (2002), Textbook of small animal surgery, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7216-8607-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=B_nh6zSr4wUC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Kahn, Cynthia M., ed. (2010), The Merck Veterinary Manual, Whitehouse Station, N.J., Merck, ISBN 9780911910933 
• Thrusfield, Michael (2007), Veterinary epidemiology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-5627-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=LZfevagYF4YC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Zajac, A.; Conboy, Gary A.; American Association of Veterinary Parasitologists (2006), Veterinary clinical parasitology, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-8138-1734-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=FF6EqlL64RcC, retrieved 21 November 2011 

Veterinary nursing, ophthalmology, and pharmacology

• Adams, H. Richard (2001), Veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-1743-9, http://books.google.com/books?id=2CUbc0RXvb8C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Bryant, Susan (2010), Anesthesia for Veterinary Technicians, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-0-8138-0586-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=WUFnykeagBEC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Cannon, Martha; Hijfte, Myra Forster-van (2006), Feline medicine: a practical guide for veterinary nurses and technicians, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7506-8827-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=Jv_AG8XJ_ZEC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Crispin, Sheila M. (2005), Notes on veterinary ophthalmology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-632-06416-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=SYo9NbW62HgC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Gelatt, Kirk N. (2000), Essentials of veterinary ophthalmology, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-683-30077-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=fGJwfJWCc-kC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Lane, D. R.; Cooper, B. (2003), Veterinary nursing, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7506-5525-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=driJ1awa180C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Pattengale, Paula (2004), Tasks for the veterinary assistant, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-7817-4243-6, http://books.google.com/books?id=JGsG8IB04FYC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Riviere, Jim E.; Papich, Mark G. (2009), Veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-0-8138-2061-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=ievLulSqwBAC, retrieved 21 November 2011 </ref>

Other fields related to veterinary medicine

• Anthony, David; University of Pennsylvania. University Museum (1984), Man and animals: living, working, and changing together : in celebration of the 100th anniversary, the School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, UPenn Museum of Archaeology, ISBN 978-0-934718-68-4, http://books.google.com/books?id=yZZzqGoI0U0C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Catanzaro, Thomas E. (1998), Building the Successful Veterinary Practice: Innovation and creativity, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-2984-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=vRocAzFFFkAC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Finger, Stanley (2001), Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514694-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E1IB4C, retrieved 21 November 2011 </ref>
• Rollin, Bernard E. (2006), An introduction to veterinary medical ethics: theory and cases, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-8138-0399-9, http://books.google.com/books?id=_fETw54VmB4C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Sherman, David M. (2002), Tending animals in the global village: a guide to international veterinary medicine, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-683-18051-0, http://books.google.com/books?id=ax_lLPG634AC, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Shilcock, Maggie; Stutchfield, Georgina (2003), Veterinary practice management: a practical guide, Elsevier Health Sciences, ISBN 978-0-7020-2696-6, http://books.google.com/books?id=YAv-mSUcex8C, retrieved 21 November 2011 
• Smith, Gary; Kelly, eds. (2008), Food Security in a Global Economy: Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Phila.: University of Pennsylvania Press. Pp. 176, ISBN 0812220447, http://books.google.com/books?id=aAh_mgEudl8C&printsec=frontcover&cad=0 
• Swabe, Joanna (1999), Animals, Disease, and Human Society: Human-animal Relations and the Rise of Veterinary Medicine, Routledge. Pp. 243., ISBN 0415181933, http://books.google.com/books?id=3Mjf4TWp1CcC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0 
• Swope, Robert E.; Rigby, Julie (2001), Opportunities in veterinary medicine careers, McGraw-Hill Professional. Pp. 151, ISBN 0658010557, http://books.google.com/books?id=sFtmTlxY5e4C&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#PPP1,M1 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Veterinary Medicine

Look up veterinary medicine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

v d e Veterinary medicine Practitioners Veterinary physician • Paraveterinary workers (Veterinary nurses, technicians and assistants) • Veterinary pathologist • Veterinary pharmacist • Veterinary surgeon • List of veterinarians Education Veterinary school • Schools of veterinary medicine • Veterinarian's Oath • American Veterinary Medical Association • Veterinary Medical College Application Service (VMCAS) • Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Other Veterinary specialties • Veterinary surgery • Veterinary informatics • Veterinary dentistry • Avian veterinarian • Equine veterinarian • Exotic animal veterinarian • Veterinary Corps (U.S. Army)

v d e Veterinary specialties Alternative medicine Anatomy Anesthesia Behavior Biotechnology Cardiology Dentistry Dermatology Epidemiology Bioethics Genetics Infectious disease Informatics Neurology Nutrition Oncology Ophthalmology Orthopedics Pathology Pharmacology Practice management Radiology Sports medicine Surgery Theriogenology Toxicology

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