Neuropharmacology

due its sedating property, wide range of drug-drug interactions and can depress our cognitive functions. It can also induce osteoporosis with prolonged use.

It's preferably to be used in refractory cases of epilepsy only.

It blocks the voltage-gated Na+ channels.

At the start of a nerve impulse, also known as an action potential, there is a rapid change in the ionic composition of the neuron. Sodium (Na+) channels open, allowing Na+ ions to flow into the cell, which depolarizes the membrane and shifts the internal charge from negative to positive. This depolarization is followed by the opening of potassium (K+) channels, allowing K+ to exit the cell, which eventually helps to repolarize the membrane. The coordinated movement of these ions is crucial for the propagation of the nerve impulse along the neuron.

Neurotransmitters and hormones work together to form the neuroendocrine system.
Neurotransmitters and hormones- Apex

An anesthetic state that may be induced if neuroleptic-opiod combination is ineffective. In addition to a neuroleptic and an opioid (droperidol + fentanyl), concurrent administration of 65% nitrous oxide (laughing gas)= patient will be unconscious.

To make it simple, Levodopa is the precursor of Dopamine and it's used to treat Parkinson's disease. (We don't directly use dopamine because dopamine can't cross our blood-brain-barrier, so, it won't be effective to be taken orally)

monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

The S stands for serotonin and the N stands for norepinephrine and RI stands for reuptake inhibitor. So, obviously these drugs are supposed to work on both serotonin and norepinephrine. However, some literature uses SNRI to mean Selective Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor, and this will work better on norepinephrine. Then you have the SSRI which is Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor, which works better on serotonin.

Differentiate

Tricyclics are more potent antidepressants compared to the newer SSRIs. The reason SSRIs tend to be prescribed more, however, is because tricyclics are less well tolerated due to their antimuscarinic effects, such as: dryness of mouth, constipation, dizziness, abnormal heart rhythm, blurred vision and urinary retention. Trycyclics cannot be given to people with with hypotension or heart problems. SSRIs generally have a longer half life (15-50 hrs vs. 12-32 hrs for trycyclics) and do not require as high a concentration in the blood as tricyclics for their therapeutic effect.

• Aripiprazole
• Thioridazine

Iodine (a halogen) forms a starch-iodine complex by binding with amylose coils, which results in a transfer of charge between amylose and iodine, changing the energy levels of iodine atoms, and producing a dark blue color.

Tricyclic antidepressants are available only with a physician's prescription and are sold in tablet, capsule, liquid, and injectable forms

give Domperidone

pyridoxine (vitamin B6) can decrease the effect of levodopa.

If you mean the big spill that just happened, It happened in the gulf of Mexico and started when a BP oil rig caught on fire and sunk into the ocean, which is now spilling oil miles below the sea under water. Gee, thanks BP. Hope this helped!

desflurane (because it can cause respiratory infection - cough, bronchospasm)

nothing it is perfectly safe

ANSWER

Cannabis is not "perfectly" safe, nor is is certainly dangerous. No one is completely certain of its full effects the chemical function of the brain is not fully elucidated, nor are the complete effects of cannabis on this complex system. What is known is that the active ingredient, THC, effects cannabinoid mediated neurotransmission in the brain on binding to CB1 receptors. Binding to these receptors causes a reduction in the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in decreasing its release. CB1 is the most widely identified receptor in the adult brain.

Caffeine

The peristaltic movements are muscle contractions and its function on the esophagus is to push food down into the stomach and prevent it from going back into the esophagus.

In behavioral neuropharmacology, this refers to a shift in the 'pursuit of pleasure.' Stimulation of cannabinoid receptors, for example, can cause a hedonic shift in food consumption.