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Computer Programming
A category for questions about computer programming and programming languages.
10,506 Questions
What arguments can be made against the idea of a single language for all programming domains?
You cannot. The only programming language understood natively by a machine is its own machine code. Every architecture has its own variant of machine code and for good reason. Just as the machine code for a piano player would make little or no sense to a Jacquard loom, the machine code for a mainframe would be impractical for a smart phone. Each machine has a specific purpose and therefore has its own unique set of opcodes to suit that purpose. Although some of those opcodes will be very similar and may have the same value associated with them, they won't necessarily operate in exactly the same way, so the sequence of opcodes is just as important as the opcodes themselves. Thus every machine not only has its own machine code it also has its own low-level assembly language to produce that machine code.
We could argue that we only need one high-level language, of course, but then that one language would have to be suitable for all types of programming on all types of machine. This is quite simply impossible, because some languages are better suited to certain domains than others. For instance, Java is an incredibly useful language because it is highly portable, but it is only useful for writing application software. It is of no practical use when it comes to writing operating system kernels or low-level drivers because all Java code is written against a common but ultimately non-existent virtual machine. If it were possible to write an operating system in Java, the extra level of abstraction required to convert the Java byte code to native machine code would result in far from optimal performance; never mind the fact you need to an interpreter to perform the conversion in the first place.
C++ is arguably more powerful than Java because it is general purpose and has zero overhead. Other than assembly, there is no other language capable of producing more efficient machine code than C++. However, C++ isn't a practical language for coding artificial intelligence systems; for that we need a language that is capable of rewriting its own source code, learning and adapting itself to new information. C++ is too low-level for that.
The mere fact we have so many high-level languages is testament to the fact we cannot have a single language across all programming domains. Languages are evolving all the time, borrowing ideas from each other. If a domain requires multiple paradigms for which no single language can accommodate, we can easily interoperate between the languages that provide the specific paradigms we need, possibly creating an entirely new language in the process. That's precisely how languages have evolved into the languages we see today.
Develop SRS for Library Information system?
Software Requirements Specification for Library Information System (LIS) Version 2.0 Prepared by Edgar Khachatryan American University of Armenia, CIS 1 April, 28, 2005 Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Revision History 1 1. Introduction 2 1.1 Purpose 2 1.2 Project scope Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.3 Definitions, acronyms, abbreviation Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Overall Description 2 2.1 Product Perspective 2 2.3 User Classes and Characteristics 3 2.4 Operating Environment 3 2.5 User Documentation 3 3. System Features 4 3.1 Searching 4 3.1 Clark 4 4. External Interface Requirements 4 4.1 User Interfaces 4 4.2 Software Interfaces 4 4.3 Communications Interfaces 4 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements 5 5.1 Safety Requirements 5 5.2 Security Requirements 5 5.3 Software Quality Attributes 5 6. Use Cases 5 Appendix A: Glossary 10 Revision History Name Date Reason For Changes Version Edgar Khachatryan 28.March.2005 Draft version 1.0 Draft Edgar Khachatryan 28.April.2005 2.0 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose The goal of this document is to give description of how to use the Library Information System (LIS) (release 1.0). It gives complete information about functional and nonfunctional requirements of system. This SRS document is done for developers of LIS as well as for Library clerk and staff. Document easy to read and understood, there are no particular typographical conventions. 1.2 Project Scope Purpose of LIS is to automat activities of Library informational system such as storing information about books, members and sponsors as well as penalties will be executed by computer. LIS will allow doing statistics for Library purposes (such as, sorting books or ordering new books). LIS can be fully independent system, but also can be part of other systems. In all cases data base will be only in the local SC. All menus will be standardized by KDE standard. Main programming language will be C++ and for interface Visual Java. 1.3 References CIS 260 Software Engineering - I http://developer.kde.org/documentation/standards/kde/style/basics/index.html 1.4 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations LIS - Library Information System SC - Server Computer UC - User Computer SUC - Staff User Computer M1 - Undergraduate student M2 - Postgraduate student M3 - Research scholar M4 - Faculty Member 2. Overall Description 2.1 Product Perspective Software Library Information System is aimed to automate required activities of Library. LIS will give possibility to provide high quality service to the Library members, also to have high planned and fast work. Do to friendly and multifunctional interface Library clerk will be able to easily insert, delete and update data, also append comments concern stuff, sponsors, books and members. Also BS will be able to search and get information about books and their availabilities. 2.2 User Classes and Characteristics Clerk - The Clerk is an organizer of all activities in the Library. Clerk has an all rights and accesses to all private information. Clerk has an opportunity to delete or to add member's, staff's, book's, sponsor's or other important information. Clerk is a user of SC, all databases and statistics visible only for Clerk. Library Staff - Part of library staffs which have an access to the SUC allow giving book and taking returned books. Library staff Member - Each Library member has an ID number. They have access to UC and allow searching book and borrowing or reserving it. Members must return book in time or pay penalties. M1 - Undergraduate student, can issue up to 2 books for 1 mount duration. M2 - Postgraduate student, can issue up to 4 books for 1 mount duration. M3 - Research scholar, can issue up to 6 books for 3 mount duration. M4 - Faculty Member, can issue up to 10 books for 6 mount duration. Books - The Library has at least 10 000 books. Each book has unique number (ISBN). B1 - This books can be borrowed B2 - These books can only be used inside of Library. 2.3 Operating Environment LIS based on DOS platform and minimum requirements for hardware are 100 MB available in HDD, 8mb RAM and 2x CD-ROM. LIS copyrighted by CIS 1 and fully maintained, it working in two languages (English and Armenian) but can be translated in any language. 2.4 User Documentation LIS sell give help when user pushing F1 in keyboard as well as by clicking into help button. Help includes guidelines about searching and borrowing the book. Also there is documentation where each member could get information about borrowing durations and Library policy. For the first time shell give tutorial in Macromedia Flash environment. 3. System Features 3.1 Searching Searching can be done in two ways by title and by author. If keyword true information about book will be executed with information is it available or not. If keyword wrong system will send massage with error condition. If keyword true but book not available system will return information about book with information about borrowing period. 3.2 Clerk Clerk putting ID number of member, if member has penalties system sending alarm with information about penalty, otherwise it continues work. Then clerk putting ISBN of book and if it is not reserved system asking about allowing to continue if answer OK it moving book from available into borrowed. 4. External Interface Requirements 4.1 User Interfaces LIS are very friendly it can be used by user without any explanation. 4.2 Software Interfaces LIS including two parts of system, one for member and second for user. In user part only search is available, in clerk part available all parts of system. 4.3 Communications Interfaces Communications realized by standard forms and massage windows. 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements 5.1 Safety Requirements Product can be installed only if there are some kinds of operating system which are based on DOS or if available only DOS. Strongly requirement is to close LIS before shutting down computer. 5.2 Security Requirements Copying or using LIS not allowing without asking CIS 1. 5.3 Software Quality Attributes LIS very specific software for specific purpose, it is very easy and safe, with high productiveness. 6. Use Cases Use Case ID: 1 Use Case Name: Search of Material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader, Library Staff Description: A User accesses the LIS for searching a material. The process should be executed by LIS not more than 1 min. Preconditions: User is logged into LIS Postconditions: None Normal Flow: 1.0 Searching material 1. User asks to search material. 2. System opens appropriate place for choosing material. 3. User chooses appropriate material. 4. System opens appropriate place for searching. 5. User enters the key (keys) for searching the material. 6. System brings found records' list (records). 7. User chooses one record. Alternative Flows: None Exceptions: 1.0. E.1. Material to be searched does not exist. 1. System informs the user that the material does not exist in LIS data base. 2. User cancels the searching process. 3. System returns the user to the main window. Priority: Low Notes and Issues: Material is a book, CD, video, document, magazine, e-book. Use Case ID: 2 Use Case Name: Holding material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: A User accesses the LIS for holding a material. The process should be executed by LIS not more than 1 min. Preconditions: User is logged into LIS. Postconditions: 1. The delete process is conformed. 2. System updates the holding list. Normal Flow: 1.0 Holding material 1. User asks to search material. 2. System opens appropriate place for choosing material. 3. User chooses appropriate material. 4. System opens appropriate place for searching. 5. User enters the key (keys) for searching the material. 6. System brings found records' list (records). 7. User chooses one record. 8. User holds material. Alternative Flows: None: Exceptions: 1.0. E.1. Material to be hold does not exist. 1. System informs the user that the material does not exist in LIS data base. 2. User cancels the holding process. 3. System returns the user to the main window. Priority: High Notes and Issues: User can hold maximum 5 materials. Use Case ID: 3 Use Case Name: Returning book Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 4 Use Case Name: Input Output member Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 5 Use Case Name: Statistics Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 6 Use Case Name: Input Output Material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 7 Use Case Name: Info about availableness Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 8 Use Case Name: Distant contact between reader and staff Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader and Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 9 Use Case Name: Penalty system Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: LIS Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 10 Use Case Name: Accountant system Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: LIS Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 11 Use Case Name: Print Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader, Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 12 Use Case Name: Reserve of material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Appendix A: Glossary Fig.2. Sequence Diagram of LIS Fig.2. Class Diagram of LIS Fig.1. Use case diagram of LIS Software Requirements Specification for Library Information System (LIS) Version 2.0 Prepared by Edgar Khachatryan American University of Armenia, CIS 1 April, 28, 2005 Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Revision History 1 1. Introduction 2 1.1 Purpose 2 1.2 Project scope Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.3 Definitions, acronyms, abbreviation Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Overall Description 2 2.1 Product Perspective 2 2.3 User Classes and Characteristics 3 2.4 Operating Environment 3 2.5 User Documentation 3 3. System Features 4 3.1 Searching 4 3.1 Clark 4 4. External Interface Requirements 4 4.1 User Interfaces 4 4.2 Software Interfaces 4 4.3 Communications Interfaces 4 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements 5 5.1 Safety Requirements 5 5.2 Security Requirements 5 5.3 Software Quality Attributes 5 6. Use Cases 5 Appendix A: Glossary 10 Revision History Name Date Reason For Changes Version Edgar Khachatryan 28.March.2005 Draft version 1.0 Draft Edgar Khachatryan 28.April.2005 2.0 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose The goal of this document is to give description of how to use the Library Information System (LIS) (release 1.0). It gives complete information about functional and nonfunctional requirements of system. This SRS document is done for developers of LIS as well as for Library clerk and staff. Document easy to read and understood, there are no particular typographical conventions. 1.2 Project Scope Purpose of LIS is to automat activities of Library informational system such as storing information about books, members and sponsors as well as penalties will be executed by computer. LIS will allow doing statistics for Library purposes (such as, sorting books or ordering new books). LIS can be fully independent system, but also can be part of other systems. In all cases data base will be only in the local SC. All menus will be standardized by KDE standard. Main programming language will be C++ and for interface Visual Java. 1.3 References CIS 260 Software Engineering - I http://developer.kde.org/documentation/standards/kde/style/basics/index.html 1.4 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations LIS - Library Information System SC - Server Computer UC - User Computer SUC - Staff User Computer M1 - Undergraduate student M2 - Postgraduate student M3 - Research scholar M4 - Faculty Member 2. Overall Description 2.1 Product Perspective Software Library Information System is aimed to automate required activities of Library. LIS will give possibility to provide high quality service to the Library members, also to have high planned and fast work. Do to friendly and multifunctional interface Library clerk will be able to easily insert, delete and update data, also append comments concern stuff, sponsors, books and members. Also BS will be able to search and get information about books and their availabilities. 2.2 User Classes and Characteristics Clerk - The Clerk is an organizer of all activities in the Library. Clerk has an all rights and accesses to all private information. Clerk has an opportunity to delete or to add member's, staff's, book's, sponsor's or other important information. Clerk is a user of SC, all databases and statistics visible only for Clerk. Library Staff - Part of library staffs which have an access to the SUC allow giving book and taking returned books. Library staff Member - Each Library member has an ID number. They have access to UC and allow searching book and borrowing or reserving it. Members must return book in time or pay penalties. M1 - Undergraduate student, can issue up to 2 books for 1 mount duration. M2 - Postgraduate student, can issue up to 4 books for 1 mount duration. M3 - Research scholar, can issue up to 6 books for 3 mount duration. M4 - Faculty Member, can issue up to 10 books for 6 mount duration. Books - The Library has at least 10 000 books. Each book has unique number (ISBN). B1 - This books can be borrowed B2 - These books can only be used inside of Library. 2.3 Operating Environment LIS based on DOS platform and minimum requirements for hardware are 100 MB available in HDD, 8mb RAM and 2x CD-ROM. LIS copyrighted by CIS 1 and fully maintained, it working in two languages (English and Armenian) but can be translated in any language. 2.4 User Documentation LIS sell give help when user pushing F1 in keyboard as well as by clicking into help button. Help includes guidelines about searching and borrowing the book. Also there is documentation where each member could get information about borrowing durations and Library policy. For the first time shell give tutorial in Macromedia Flash environment. 3. System Features 3.1 Searching Searching can be done in two ways by title and by author. If keyword true information about book will be executed with information is it available or not. If keyword wrong system will send massage with error condition. If keyword true but book not available system will return information about book with information about borrowing period. 3.2 Clerk Clerk putting ID number of member, if member has penalties system sending alarm with information about penalty, otherwise it continues work. Then clerk putting ISBN of book and if it is not reserved system asking about allowing to continue if answer OK it moving book from available into borrowed. 4. External Interface Requirements 4.1 User Interfaces LIS are very friendly it can be used by user without any explanation. 4.2 Software Interfaces LIS including two parts of system, one for member and second for user. In user part only search is available, in clerk part available all parts of system. 4.3 Communications Interfaces Communications realized by standard forms and massage windows. 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements 5.1 Safety Requirements Product can be installed only if there are some kinds of operating system which are based on DOS or if available only DOS. Strongly requirement is to close LIS before shutting down computer. 5.2 Security Requirements Copying or using LIS not allowing without asking CIS 1. 5.3 Software Quality Attributes LIS very specific software for specific purpose, it is very easy and safe, with high productiveness. 6. Use Cases Use Case ID: 1 Use Case Name: Search of Material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader, Library Staff Description: A User accesses the LIS for searching a material. The process should be executed by LIS not more than 1 min. Preconditions: User is logged into LIS Postconditions: None Normal Flow: 1.0 Searching material 1. User asks to search material. 2. System opens appropriate place for choosing material. 3. User chooses appropriate material. 4. System opens appropriate place for searching. 5. User enters the key (keys) for searching the material. 6. System brings found records' list (records). 7. User chooses one record. Alternative Flows: None Exceptions: 1.0. E.1. Material to be searched does not exist. 1. System informs the user that the material does not exist in LIS data base. 2. User cancels the searching process. 3. System returns the user to the main window. Priority: Low Notes and Issues: Material is a book, CD, video, document, magazine, e-book. Use Case ID: 2 Use Case Name: Holding material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: A User accesses the LIS for holding a material. The process should be executed by LIS not more than 1 min. Preconditions: User is logged into LIS. Postconditions: 1. The delete process is conformed. 2. System updates the holding list. Normal Flow: 1.0 Holding material 1. User asks to search material. 2. System opens appropriate place for choosing material. 3. User chooses appropriate material. 4. System opens appropriate place for searching. 5. User enters the key (keys) for searching the material. 6. System brings found records' list (records). 7. User chooses one record. 8. User holds material. Alternative Flows: None: Exceptions: 1.0. E.1. Material to be hold does not exist. 1. System informs the user that the material does not exist in LIS data base. 2. User cancels the holding process. 3. System returns the user to the main window. Priority: High Notes and Issues: User can hold maximum 5 materials. Use Case ID: 3 Use Case Name: Returning book Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 4 Use Case Name: Input Output member Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 5 Use Case Name: Statistics Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 6 Use Case Name: Input Output Material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 7 Use Case Name: Info about availableness Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 8 Use Case Name: Distant contact between reader and staff Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader and Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 9 Use Case Name: Penalty system Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: LIS Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 10 Use Case Name: Accountant system Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: LIS Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 11 Use Case Name: Print Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader, Library Staff Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Use Case ID: 12 Use Case Name: Reserve of material Created By: Edgar Khachatryan Last Updated by Edgar Khachatryan Date Created: April, 20, 2005 Date Last Updated Actors: Reader Description: Preconditions: Postconditions: Normal Flow: Alternative Flows: Exceptions: Priority: Notes and Issues: Appendix A: Glossary Fig.2. Sequence Diagram of LIS Fig.2. Class Diagram of LIS Fig.1. Use case diagram of LIS
Write a c program to add 2 no without using plus operator?
You can make use of pointers to achieve this.
void add( int *a, int *b){
(*a) += (*b);
}
Now if two numbers a and b are given and you need to store the value in variable c, then you would perform:
c = a;
add(&c,&b);
Who are the manufacturers of system BIOS programs?
There are several BIOS manufacturers in existence. Phoenix and American Megatrends (AMI) are the two major ones still in existence (Award was purchased by Phoenix in 1998). Some OEMs, notably Toshiba, also develop their own BIOS in-house.
What is the advantages of binary digits over the decimal?
Computers do not understand decimal notation. All information (both instructions and data) must be converted to a binary representation before the machine can understand it. We use the symbols 0 and 1 (binary notation) but the machine has a variety of physical representations it can use to encode binary data, including transistors, flux transitions, on/off switches and so on.
A design technique that programmers use to break down an algorithm into modules is known as?
When a programmer breaks down a problem into a series of high-level tasks and continues to break each task into successively more detailed subtasks, this method of algorithm creation is called:
Which language is used to develop Windows OS?
Microsoft Windows is most likely developed using C and/or C++ for the majority of its internals. I remember seeing a "leaked" copy of the Microsoft Windows source code (though I never had a chance to verify its legitimacy), but considering that virtually all of Microsoft's software is written in "Win32" or "Win64" C++, and that most drivers are also written in C/C++, it stands to reason that Windows is primarily written using C and/or C++, with small pieces written in "assembler" to bridge the gap between limitations in C++ and the necessary instructions for enabling task gates, etc, that do not have standard C++ headers.
An algorithm to Reversing the order of elements on stack S using 1 additional stacks?
// stack to contain content
Stack sourceStack = new Stack();
// ... fill sourceStack with content
// stack to contain reversed content
Stack targetStack = new Stack();
while (!sourceStack.empty())
{
targetStack.push(sourceStack.pop());
}
// targetStack contains the reversed content of sourceStack
The 1-bit-per-chip organization has several advantages. It requires
fewer pins on the package (only one data out line); therefore, a higher
density of bits can be achieved for a given size package. Also, it is
somewhat more reliable because it has onoy one output driver. These
benefits have led to the traditional use of 1-bit-per-chip for RAM. In
most cases, ROMs are much smaller than RAMs and it is often possible to get
an entire ROM on one or two chips if a multiple-bits-per-chip organization
is used. This saves on cost and is sufficient reason to adopt that
organization.
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What is An array of wavelengths?
It is a spectrum. I know this because i am currently in physical science class and we just discussed it. Unless my teacher and book are wrong, this is right.
Who invented first motherboard?
IBM, in 1981.
There was no specific invention or inventor of a first motherboard. The concept of a motherboard evolved over a number of years responding to the reduction in electronic component size. One of the original concepts in computer construction was the backplane. The backplane allowed for circuit card to be plugged in on one side. Its back had rows of pins corresponding to the socket connections. The pin connections defined how the attached circuit cards functioned and pins were connected to other pins with wires wrapped around them.
As technology matured, electronic parts were combined into Integrated circuit (IC) chips which were mounted on the backplane itself and the pins and wiring on the rear of the backplane were replaced by printed circuits. This eventually became what we call a motherboard, mainboard or some equivalent name.
Original microcomputers and personal computers had a central processor (CPU), memory, and control circuitry on the motherboard. That took up all the available space. Most other parts required their own support circuitry that would not fit on the motherboard so they were placed on individual circuit cards plugged into the motherboard. This included additional memory, output display, hard drives controllers, and even standard input/output ports such as serial (RS232,) Printer(parallel), mouse and game ports. Most of these eventually became compact enough to be integrated onto the motherboard board we use today.
list item. it is the child of either <ul> - unordered list, or <ol> - ordered list in html
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How can you do the programing?
You make programs with another program called a compiler. A complier takes some text consisting of special keywords and commands into a program. The text put into the compiler is called a language. Different computer languages include BASIC, C++, C, Java, Ada, APL, Perl, COBOL, Fortran, and more.
Which letters of the alphabet are not used alpha numeric code?
The only alphabet used in a modern periodic table is the English one, which is almost the same as the Latin one. Alphabets not used include Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Thai, etc.
What are some examples of inflated language?
There are many different kinds of prententious speaking and writing. Being pretentious doesn't always involve long words, either. Here's an example: 'James Harris was, alas, unable to put the finishing touches to this novel. On 1 June 1931 he closed his eyes for ever; death tore the pen from his hand'. That example has stuck in my mind as it is so grotesque.
Why is c referred to as middle level language?
C is called a middle level language since it is a higher language than something like assembler, which communicates to the computer through operations that directly manipulate data and uses machine code.
High level languages, are very close to human readable/speakable languages, such as English and French ( and many more), and are therefore more human-oriented.
Unfortunately, the C programming language is neither a low-level language, such as assembler, or a high level language such as English, but somewhere in between. Thus a middle-level language
By mistake. It is a high-level language.
int main()
{
int total = 0;
for(int i = 101; i < 200; i++)
{
if(i % 7 == 0)
total += i;
}
printf("total = %d\n", total);
return 0;
}
What are the programming languages of expert system?
It depends on the sub-field in AI.
Lisp, was used from the very binning of AI.
Python, C++ and Java are used mostly now.
What is the need of object oriented programming?
Object oriented programming, on the other hand, shifts your primary focus to the data itself. Instead of asking "what do I want to do and what will I need to know to do it", you ask "what kind of things do I want to have and what can those things do for me". Instead of designing your functions first and then coming up with data structures to support them, you design types first and then come up with the operations needed to work with them.
Three OOP PrinciplesPerhaps the most important feature of OOP is polymorphism, the ability to identify certain aspects that several data types have in common, and write code that works equally well with all of them by ignoring the differences in situations where they don't matter.For example, consider a simple drawing program where you have a set of shapes (circles, rectangles, etc.) that share certain things in common (they all have a location, size, and color) but are different in other ways (how they look or whether they can be rotated). In a structured program, you'd write a function to draw a shape, containing logic like "if the shape is a circle, do ABC; if it's a rectangle, do XYZ" and so on.
But in an OO program, you'd simply tell the shape to draw itself, and the shape would know, based on its own type, what to do: you write a specialized drawing function when you define each shape, and when you send a "draw" message to any shape, it automatically calls the one for the correct shape type. Polymorphism eliminates the need for you to check what kind of shape it is: you just have to know that shapes can draw themselves, and let the shape worry about how it actually happens.
Another important OO principle is encapsulation, the ability to bundle code and data together in one place and hide that data from the outside world, forcing anyone who wants to access it to go through the associated code. For example, all shapes have a location and a size, but the best representation might be different. A circle only needs three numbers (center X, center Y, and radius) but a rectangle needs four (top, bottom, left, right). Structured programming encourages code everywhere to deal directly with the innards of data structures, so most likely you'd need to use the same representation for all shapes in order to avoid checking the type every time you wanted to measure a shape, even though that representation is wasteful for circles.
Object oriented programming addresses that problem two ways: first, encapsulation says that the internal representation of a shape is off-limits to anyone else, so if you want to know how big a shape is, you have to call its getSize() method instead of reading its size directly out of memory. Second, polymorphism allows different shapes to implement their getSize() methods differently, allowing circles to use a more efficient version while presenting the same interface to the outside world.
Finally, there's inheritance, which makes it easy to extend existing structures to produce new structures with slightly different behavior. For example, a filled circle is mostly the same as a regular circle, but it draws itself differently and also has a fill color. In a structured program, you'd probably handle filled circles by adding a fill color to all shapes and a flag that indicates whether the shape is filled or not, and the fill color would simply go unused (wasting memory) in unfilled shapes. In an object-oriented program, you can make FilledCircle a subclass of Circle, inheriting all the existing circle behavior, and then replace the draw() method and add a place to store the fill color. Then if you changed something about Circle later, the change would automatically propagate to FilledCircle, while changes you made to FilledCircle would not affect any other shapes.
Design vs. LanguageWhether your code is object oriented or merely structured depends partly on your choice of language, but also on your design. For example, the C language doesn't offer any features for object oriented programming, but with enough discipline you can still write object-oriented code in C, such as the GTK windowing library. On the other hand, you can write a Java program that completely fails to take advantage of Java's OOP features, by putting all your code in a single class and using classes with public members just as you'd use structs in C. One organizes code by comprehensiveness while the other organizes code by the data affected.Structured programming consists of breaking big problems into smaller problems, then further breaking those into still smaller problems, and so on, until a level of such simplicity is reached that the implementation is obvious to the programmer expected to do the coding. Object-oriented programming consists of grouping code with the data on which it operates so that this "object" can function independently of the rest of the software system. Structured programming and object-oriented programming are not mutually exclusive. You can structure the code in an object, and you can use objects to implement the modules of code in a structured program. Procedural (Structure) vs. OO programming require different approachesSimilarities: Both require a rudimentary understanding of programming concepts and basic control flow. Loops, conditional statements, and variables are concepts that are important whether you are using a procedural language or an object oriented language.Differences: Typically object oriented is viewed as more difficult. This is because an entirely different problem solving approach must be taking. In addition, there are a variety of object-oriented-only concepts such as classes and inheritance. For simple programs, procedural is often preferred. The more complicated the project, the easier it is to leverage the strengths of object oriented design.
Other notes: Not all languages fall strictly into procedural or object oriented baskets. In actuality, it is more of a spectrum. Languages like Basic and C are pretty much entirely procedural. Languages like C++ and Pascal can be written in either procedural or object oriented styles. Languages like Java and Python adhere much more strictly to object oriented design (although some programmers argue these aren't TRUE object oriented languages).
Advantages of DDA line drawing algorithm?
DDA Line Drawing Algorithm
Step 1:[Determine The Dx & Dy]
Dx=Xb-Xa
Dy=Yb-Ya
Step 2:[Determine Slope is Gentle or Sharp]
If |Dx|>|Dy| then
Gentle Slope
M=Dy/Dx
Set The Starting Point
If Dx>0 Then
C=CELING(Xb)
D=Yb+M*(C-Xb)
F=FLOOR(Xa)
R=FLOOR(D+0.5)
H=R-D+M
IF M>0 Then
Positive Gentle Slope
M1=M-1
Now Step Through The Columns
WHILE C<=F
C Programming Coding For DDA Algorithmvoid linedda(int xa,int ya,int xb,int yb) {
int dx=xb-xa,dy=yb-ya,steps,k;
float xincrement,yincrement,x=xa,y=ya;
if(abs(dx)>abs(dy)) steps=abs(dx);
else steps=abs(dy);
xincrement=dx/(float)steps;
yincrement=dy/(float)steps;
putpixel(round(x),round(y),2)
for(k=0;k
y+=yincrement;
putpixel(round(x),round(y),2);
}
}
More Informationhttp://knol.google.com/k/thiyagaraaj-m/dda-line-algorithm/1lfp8o9xxpx13/78#
http://i.thiyagaraaj.com/articles/articles/dda-line-algorithm
What is the flow chart for a program that finds two product numbers?
Since all decent programming languages have the multiplication operator, you simply multiply them. If you want to go into a bit more detail, it would be a bit like this:
Ask user for number "a"
Ask user for number "b"
Calculate result = a * b
Show result
(End)
Use the appropriate flow chart symbols for input, etc.
What two things must you normally specify in a variable declaration?
This is when you specify the name and type of the variable.
Example:
int number;
The declaration line can also include an instantiation for that variable.
Example:
int number = 5;
When you declare a variable or an object (particularly in OOP programming) , you set aside a chunk of memory space for the data to reside.
What is the binary code for seventeen?
It depends how you want to encode it. Encoding as 8-bit ASCII (ISO/IEC/8859 or ISO-8859-1) it will be:
0x6920616d20736576656e00
Note the 0x00 at the end is the null terminator. Total length is 11 bytes.
However, you will probably want to replace the lowercase 'i' with an uppercase 'I' (in all version of English, the singular first person noun 'I' is always capitalised), in which case the encoding would be:
0x4920616d20736576656e00
Encoding as 16-bit UNICODE is the same except each byte is padded with 8 zero bits (0x00) and a BOM (byte-order mark) is inserted at the front to ensure correct interpretation. In big-endian notation, the binary value would be:
0xfeff004900200061006d00200073006500760065006e0000
In little-endian notation, it would be:
0xfffe4900200061006d00200073006500760065006e000000
Similarly with 32-bit UNICODE, padding with another 16 zero bits along with a 32-bit BOM:
32-bit big-endian:
0x0000feff0000004900000020000000610000006d00000020000000730000006500000076000000650000006e00000000
32-bit little-endian:
0xfffe0000004900000020000000610000006d00000020000000730000006500000076000000650000006e000000000000
There are many other ways to encode text. This is primarily due to the wide variety of character sets available to cater for foreign languages and other symbols. It is also possible to use compression encodings, cipher encodings and encrypted encodings. But in order to interpret these encodings correctly you would need to know precisely how it was encoded, in the same way a BOM tells the decoder how to correctly interpret the byte order.
What does backward compatible mean?
It means that the new version of something will still work with things that the previous version worked with.
For example the PlayStation 2 is somewhat backwards compatible with the PlayStation 1 because you can play Playstaton 1 games on the PlayStation 2. It is not completely compatible however because not all of the PlayStation 1 accessories work with the PlayStation 2.
