Computer Programming

I have the feeling you could find this on wikipedia, but here's a list to get you started:
Pascal / Delphi
C / C++ / C#
Visual Basic
Flash Actionscript
Java

Depending on the context, Javascript and even SQL could be considered higher level languages.

Input, processing, output.

Keep away from sunlight and heat sources, avoid getting dust on the surface (in particular, keeping the slider closed and/or keep the diskettes in their sleeves. Once a diskette is damaged, it cannot be fixed. Make sure regular backups are made of all diskettes.

Advantages:

You can find anything you want in a store that has variety of things. Most departmental stores will have just about anything you're looking for, from clothes, to pharmaceutical products to food. We're living in a fast paced nation where we want to find things fast and get through our bidding quicker. You'll also find many products to be cheaper, for examples Walmart has many products cheaper than most stores although may vary because they can afford to place it to be cheaper because the demand is higher.

Disadvantages:

There's also disadvantages because many products may not be there, especially products that many other foreigners may want to use. Instead they'll probably have to export. Also because departmental stores carry everything many people will go to them causing traffic, parking dilemmas, and long waiting lines.

Economically:

Many people opening little local stores find themselves competing with large departmental stores, which in turn have them only buying what is needed to meet the demand of the people surrounding.

An array is a group of related elements, with a common variable name. The index is a number that indicates the position of an element within an array: the 1st. element, the 2nd. element, etc. (many languages start counting at zero).

All programs tell the computer what to do, that is the primary purpose of programs.

The program (more accurately -set- of programs) which is the mother of all programs & gives the user direct control over the computer is called the "operating system"

In terms of storage there is no difference. A signed int is the same length (in bits) as an unsigned int. The only difference is the range of values that can be represented by those bits. With signed integers, the most-significant bit is used to denote the sign (0 = positive, 1 = negative), so an 8-bit signed char really only has 7-bits to store the value, thus limiting its positive range to [0:127] whereas the unsigned equivalent has the full 8-bits at its disposal so can represent values in the range [0:255].

Another difference is the way in which negative values are physically represented. There are in fact two ways of achieving this depending on the hardware. Older hardware generally uses ones-complement notation, which simply switches every bit. Thus 00101010 (+42) becomes 11010101 (-42). However, since the value zero is neither positive nor negative, we end up with two representations for the value zero (00000000 and 11111111). This also limits the range to [-127:127] for 8-bit signed values. Newer hardware uses twos-complement notation. To switch the sign, we first take the ones-complement as before but we then add 1 and ignore any overflow. Thus 00000000 becomes 11111111 + 1 which is 00000000. This, in turn, increases the negative range by 1, such that an 8-bit signed char now has a range of [-128:127].

Generally speaking, we use unsigned integers whenever we need to represent natural numbers, such as file sizes or array sizes; values that can never be negative. For all other work, we use signed integers.

Note that in C++ a plain char may be signed or unsigned (depending on the implementation), but is not considered the same type as either a signed or unsigned char. They are three completely independent types. Thus a plain char is only guaranteed to represent values in the range [0:127], the ASCII character codes; the only values common to both signed and unsigned char. If you specifically need to represent values outwith this range, such as [-128:127] or [0:255], use an explicitly signed or unsigned char respectively.

All other integer types (short, int, long and long long) are implicitly signed unless you explicitly declare them with the unsigned modifier. Note also that floats, doubles and long doubles are always signed (they cannot be modified).

The difference between a program flow chart and a system flowchart is that a program flowchart is for a single program. A system flowchart is designed for an entire system with each box representing a process.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int main()

{

int i,j,k,row,m;

printf("Enter the no of rows:");

scanf("%d",&row);

m=row;

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

{

printf("\n");

for(k=0;k<row;k++)

printf(" ");

for(j=0;j<=i;j++)

printf(" *");

row--;

}

getch();

}

A procedural code is

* less maintainable * polluting the namespace of variables and methods

* making harder to decouple and modularize the code, as such, it is less reusable

than an object-oriented one

#include <stdio.h>

#include<iostream.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<windows.h>

int main()

{

int q1, q2, q3, ave;

printf ("Enter 1st quiz: ");

scanf ("%d", &q1);

printf ("Enter 2nd quiz: ");

scanf ("%d", &q2);

printf ("Enter 3rd quiz: ");

scanf ("%d", &q3);

ave=(q1+q2+q3/3);

printf ("Average quiz is %d", ave);

getch() ;

}

Pseudocode is one method of describing an algorithm. Other methods use diagrams, prose, or maybe even regular programming languages.

An algorithm, on the other hand, is a method, a recipe, of solving a particular problem or group of related problems.

Probably one or two of these guys (you actually need at least two people!):

1. Bob Taylor, one of the original creators of the concept in 1962-1968. He had some sort of internet system between three offices.

Or

2. Lawrence G. Roberts, born 1937 in Connecticut, and who received the Draper Prize in 2001 "for the development of the Internet"

3. Leonard Kleinrock,

4. Robert Kahn,

5. Vinton Cerf.

These last four worked together and developed the 'internet concept' between themselves.

i.e. Larry Roberts and his team created the ARPANet, which was the first significant implementation of Leonard Kleinrock's theories on packet switching, a fundamental feature of (a) the modern internet and (b) ARPANet, the first large network form of the internet.

Yes. A computer programmer will at least use simple arithmetic. Most computer science degrees require a year of calculus, though I must admit that the most useful math classes I've taken were discrete mathematics. Math that deals with sequences, series, and sets tends to be the most common and useful (in my experience).

Of course it all depends on what specific field of programming you will be in.

If you will be doing a lot of network programming, then graph theory will probably be part of your everyday programming. Graphics programmers will need to know a good bit of geometry and trigonometry.

Object oriented programming allows programmers to classify data and methods by type. For instance, a shape is a type of object, a rectangle is a type of shape and a square is a type of rectangle. We can also say that a rectangle is a specialisation of a shape and that a square is a specialisation of a rectangle. Object oriented programming allows us to express relationships between types directly in code such that when we hold a reference to a square, we also hold a reference to a rectangle and a shape. As a result, we can pass a square or rectangle object to a function that knows nothing about squares or rectangles but knows everything about shapes.

All shapes can be drawn. Is it necessary for a function to know precisely how a shape is drawn? Of course not, it is only necessary to know that it can be drawn. Knowing this, the function can simply invoke the shape::draw() method regardless of the actual type of shape.

A rectangle inherits all the properties common to all shapes, thus a rectangle inherits the shape::draw() method. Moreover, a rectangle can specialise this method, overriding any default behaviour with its own specialised implementation in rectangle::draw(). Thus when we pass a rectangle object to a function that only knows about shapes and that function invokes the shape::draw() function, we actually invoke the rectangle::draw() function even though our function knows nothing about rectangles!

By the same token, a square inherits all the properties common to all rectangles, including all properties common to all shapes. Thus square::draw() inherits rectangle::draw() which overrides shape::draw(). However, a square does not actually need to override the draw method because the the implementation that applies to a rectangles also applies to a square. This is because rectangles and squares both have 4 vertices with internal angles of 90 degrees. The only thing that actually differentiates a square from a rectangle is that the adjacent vertices of a square are equidistant, but the actual vertices are defined by the rectangle so the rectangle has all the information required to draw a square. Again, the rectangle object does not need to know anything about squares in order to draw one!

Let's now look at how we can define all of these notions in an object-oriented programming language.

class shape {

public:

virtual void draw() = 0;

virtual ~shape() {}

};

class rectangle : public shape {

public:

rectangle (int top, int left, int width, int height): t {top}, l {left}, w {width}, h {height} {}

void draw() override;

void ~rectangle() override {}

private:

int t, l, w, h;

};

class square : public rectangle final {

public:

square (int top, int left, int size): rectangle {top, left, size, size} {}

};

Although this code is relatively short, it contains a lot of information. This is common in object oriented programming, we can glean a lot of information from very little code. A novice programmer might expect a few user-comments to explain everything in a bit more detail, but to a professional programmer this code tells us every we need to know.

For example, the shape::draw() method is declared a pure-virtual method (a virtual method with no implementation). This immediately tells is the shape class an abstract base class and thus prevents general users from instantiating objects of type shape. This reflects the real world where we can imagine a shape but we cannot draw one (we can only draw a specific type of shape). Being a base class (a class with at least one virtual method), the shape class also has to have a virtual destructor to ensure correct tear-down whenever a shape falls from scope. The shape class has no non-static data members thus we can take advantage of the empty class optimisation. That is, any class that inherits from shape will have zero overhead because there are no data members to inherit.

The rectangle class publicly inherits from shape. This means that all public methods of shape are public methods of rectangle. The rectangle specialises shape with the addition of 4 data members, t, l, w and h (top, left, width and height respectively). The constructor initialises these members at the point of instantiation. We also declare overrides for the inherited interfaces, shape::draw() and shape::~shape(). This is essential otherwise rectangle would also be an abstract base class and we wouldn't be able to instantiate rectangles.

The square class public inherits from rectangle and declares it final. This means we cannot inherit from square, it is not intended to be used as a base class. We automatically inherit both the rectangle::draw() and rectangle::~rectangle() interfaces and we do not need to override these. The only specialisation we need is the constructor which invokes the rectangle constructor to implement the invariant that a rectangle's width and height are always equal for squares. The square has no data members of its own, so there is zero overhead and while we do inherit the data members from rectangle, they are private so we cannot access them.

To complete the implementation, we also need to provide an implementation for the rectangle::draw() method. For this we'll assume that a line() function handles the low-level graphics facility. We do not need to know the implementation details of the line() function, we need only know that the function will draw a line between a pair of coordinates.

void rectangle::draw() {

line (t, l, t, l+w);

line (t, l+w, t+h, l+w);

line (t+h, l+w, t+h, l);

line (t+h, l, t, l);

}

Our definition is complete. We can now use these classes. Let's define a function that accepts a vector of shape pointers and invokes each of their draw methods. We'll use a type alias to reduce code verbosity:

using vec_shapes = std::vector<std::unique_ptr<shape>>;

void draw_shapes (vec_shapes& v) {

for (auto s : v) s->draw();

}

Note that this function only needs to "see" the shape definition. That is, the rectangle and square definitions could be defined in another translation unit entirely. We can even add triangles, circles, pentagons and all manner of other shapes into the mix at a later date and this code will still work without any further modification.

Now let's invoke this function:

void foo() {

vec_shapes v;

v.push_back (new square {10, 10 , 5});

v.push_back (new rectangle {20, 15 , 5, 7});

v.push_back (new square {30, 20 , 4});

v.push_back (new rectangle {40, 25 , 6, 8});

draw_shapes (&v);

}

Note that the vec_shapes alias is itself an object, one that encapsulates a vector of resource handles ("smart" pointers). Although we instantiated four new objects on the heap, we didn't actually delete them as we normally would have had to had they been "naked" pointers. That's because we don't have to delete them. When this function ends, the vector falls from scope and this automatically invokes its destructor which subsequently empties the vector. As each smart pointer within the vector is removed, it falls from scope thus invoking its destructor which explicitly invokes the destructor of the pointer it encapsulates (a pointer to shape). Since that destructor is declared virtual, the most-derived object is destroyed first before working back through the hierarchy, destroying each base class until the shape class itself is finally destroyed.

From this we begin to see the importance of object oriented programming. Resource management details can be fully encapsulated within the objects themselves, thus there is less chance of human error creating resource leaks which is a common problem with C-style coding using "naked" pointers. Objects can also encapsulate class invariants, such that only those methods that modify class member data need maintain those invariants, thus eliminating the need to constantly test those invariants at runtime and thus improving performance. Objects can also implement move semantics so that resources can be efficiently transferred from one object to another thus making it possible to perform (almost) perfect swaps without making any unnecessary temporary copies. This also makes it possible to efficiently return objects from functions by value, the default semantic in both C and C++. Our code becomes easier to write because there's much less of it and much easier to maintain because implementation details are easier to encapsulate.

Begin

Read num

for(i=2; i<num; i++)

if(num%2==0) then

print "the number is not a prime no.";

else if

print "the number is prime";

end if

Stop

Short answer - No. With our current level of technology and progress in the field of artificial intelligence there are no computers that can program themselves. However, depending on what you mean by "programme", there are lots of devices that can configure themselves using computer technology. However, even here this is ultimately due to "hard coded" behavior in the circuitry of these devices which is essentially a form of programming from a hardware perspective, which also originated from an external source (people). Of course you could also argue that people can't really "program" themselves either. If you stay strictly within the bounds of the physical realm (not accounting for metaphysical/spiritual aspects) people and by proxy their actions are also a result of causal laws. In this context, we are only a product of our biology and our environment, so in that regard we are no different then a organic computer. Of course, this is not accounting for any metaphysical or spiritual elements, which could significantly change the model of human behavior to be different from that of a computer's behavior. (Updated - Sorry, I didn't have a login yet, so I figured I should get one of those).

The question is a bit too vague for a meaningful answer, it depends on what you are searching and what you are looking for.

For search in an unsorted list, there is no better alternative than the naive algorithm of looking at every single element.

For search in a sorted list (like a phone book sorted on name) binary search is much more efficient.

For string search, like used in biology to find DNA matches, there are dedicated algorithms that deal exclusively with string matching.

For graph search, A* ("A star") is among the better.

For more general search problems there are a whole host of search methods that work better than others in particular domains. But so far, there is no ultimate winner that is best for everything. The best ones are generally custom made for one particular problem, like the best known algorithm for the Travelling Salesman Problem.

See also related link.

Yes it's not uncommon especially in children

A race condition or race hazard is a flaw in a system or process whereby the output and/or result of the process is unexpectedly and critically dependent on the sequence or timing of other events. The term originates with the idea of two signals racing each other to influence the output first. Race conditions can occur in electronics systems, especially logic circuits, and in computer software, especially multithreaded or distributed programs.

The Quadratic Formula song: (my grade saver)

To the tune of the jack in the box song

X equals negative B

plus or minus square root

of

B squared minus 4AC

all over 2A

:)

Our computers are digital computers as opposed to analog computers. Digital computers process data and instructions made up of words or bytes which are composed of a number of bits. Normally 8 bits make a byte, either 2 bytes (16 bits) or 4 bytes (32 bits) make a computer instruction or a data word. It all depends on the computer design.

The smallest piece of information (part of an instruction or data) is the bit. A bit represents something that can have two values. We call them "0" and "1". Because it can only have two values, we refer to the computer as a binary computer and its machine language as a binary language.

Everything that you can see done on a computer, from playing games, using webpages, or even clicking icons on your desktop.

Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely.You can do anything form writing single addition program to creating a websites.