Electronics Engineering

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Unwanted or high resistance in a automotive circuit is usually caused by corrosion around terminal points. Start at the battery terminal connections and work your way through the circuit cleaning any terminal corrosion that you see. Take the termination apart and clean the faces that touch each other. If possible tape the joint to keep air from the connection as it is this oxidation that is the main culprit.

There are two simple ways to do this. One way to get the NOT function from a NOR gate is to connect all of the NOR gate's inputs together, so that the same digital signal is sent to all of its inputs. However, this is not the best way to do it, especially if you are dealing with actual circuitry. A much better way to get a NOT function is to connect all of the NOR gate's inputs except one to a fixed low logic level (meaning off or 0, depending on how you like to think about it), and passing the digital signal into the remaining input. These two methods will both allow you to obtain a NOT gate from a NOR gate.

There have been many technological advancements over the years. Amazing processing speeds, quality, controls, and print methods are among the advancements we use today.

I suppose the formula is: MUF=critical frequency/cosine(angle of incidence).

ex:The MUF for an angle of incidence of 60 deg and a critical frequency of 60MHz will be

MUF=60 * 10^6/cos(60)

=120 MHz

By

VSR

TDM MEANs TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXiNG, of any transmitting signal ,

integrating it means combining all the different signals over into a common signal

for the bulky transmission of the signals at same channel in same time

Yes, in principle. Memristors have a resistance that depends on the last voltage applied to them. So, in using them as binary 1's and 0's, one would simply apply a very high or very low voltage to achieve a very high or very low resistance...which is subsequently interpreted as a 1 or 0. If noise in the system is sufficiently small, one could subdivide the range of achievable resistances into multiple levels...say, for instance, low, medium and high resistance that could be interpreted as a 0, 1 or 2. As noise is reduced, the number states that can be accurately measured increases and thus the maximum value each memristors can store increases. Therefore, if noise is very low, one might be able to store 4 bits of data on a single memristor, the numbers 0 through 15. This concept can be further extended to even high precision as noise is reduced further.

Note: Noise is a limiting factor in accurately reading and writing states. If there is a too much noise in the applied voltage, the resistance of the memristor could be incorrectly interpreted when read. Likewise, reading the state has noise associated with it as well. Both sources of noise would contribute to getting the wrong value.

28 + 56 = 84 ohms

The amplifier is supposed to be an electronic circuit. Electronic circuits are nonlinear circuits, which may be modeled in the time domain by means of nonlinear differential equations and nonlinear algebraic equations. The kernel of the solution of the nonlinear equations is the solution of a linear equation system i.e. the nonlinear components and couplings are approximated with linear relations valid for small signals. Iterations are performed until the laws of Kirchhoff are fulfilled. The instant set of linear equations is the small signal model for the amplifier. If the amplifier is excited with a dc power source it assumes an active state called the bias point or quiescent point. If the relation between the input and the output signals of the amplifier is measured to be (almost) linear in the bias point then we assume a small signal amplifier with time independent bias point else we assume a large signal amplifier.

The input voltage, an AC Sine Wave will have a Peak-to-Peak value equal to 2X its Peak value. Once rectified, all the Peaks will be either above or below the Zero reference line. They'll look like a series of identical bumps.

The net value of the unrectified voltage will be Zero. The positive and negative waveforms canceling each other out. The rectified waveform will be all positive or negative and its net value will be non-zero.

Its AVERAGE value will be .636 times its Peak value. Its Root Mean Square (RMS) value will be .707 times its Peak value. Its Peak-to-Peak value will equal 1X the Peak value.

2N2222

Zener Diodes like all other diodes use a semiconductor P-N junction. The focus of this topic is actually more on the semiconductor characteristics than the diode it self. Semiconductors are not conductors and do not exhibit the same behavior than conductors. In this section free electron band and conductive band are used synonymously and Fermi level is a quantum mechanical term I can roughly define in semiconductor physics for a basic understanding as the kinetic energy of the electron in the highest quantum level.

Semiconductors do not have electrons in the conduction band. All electrons are bound in covalent bonds and their valance bands are nearly filled under normal condition. It is required for an external energy to increase the Fermi level of the electrons in the valance energy band to jump the energy gap (forbidden band) into the conduction band. Then the semiconductor becomes conductive. Thermal energy is one type of energy that can raise the Fermi level of the fermions (particularly electrons in this case) in the valance electron band to jump the energy gap into the conduction band. This will increase the probability for an electron to find it self in the conduction band resulting in the semiconductor to become more conductive. In this case we will see that the contribution that thermal energy makes to increase conductivity by raising the Fermi level is much more than the contribution thermal energy makes to increase resistance, by making the atoms vibrate more, increasing collusions between electrons. This cause the semiconductor to form NTC (negative temperature coefficients), The higher the temperature the better it conducts within normal boundaries.

With conductors, they already have electrons in conductive bands and by adding energy to it will not make that much difference in the amount of free electrons (conductivity). This cause a very small contribution to increasing conductivity. But the contribution to increase resistances are far greater due to the vibration of the atom causing more collisions between electrons. This give conductors a PTC (positive temperature coefficient) in normal conditions and cause the electrical resistance to increase when temperature increases.

One can also take note that not only silicon Si and germanium Ge are semiconductors, but carbon only appear to be a conductor because it conducts electricity and often misunderstood on "school science" level. It is actually a semiconductor and also have NTC (negative temperature coefficients).

Graphite can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers, a phenomenon called aromaticity. These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers.

common emitter

if the input is changed then the output is also changed.

land pe char hai

Branch-current analysis isn't as foolproof or effective as mesh analysis, or node analysis. Although it is a very good method for one who is studying circuit analysis for the first time. Mainly because it allows you to get familiar with both of Kirchhoff's laws, and if understood, will broaden your understanding of the other methods. It will also make you appreciate them all that more... ;).

its where the gain is max and stable

Volts is not a measure of energy so there is no way to have 18volts of energy. Energy is measured in Joules, or sometimes calories.

Watts is a measure of energy transferred per second. In electrical terms, 1 Watt is equal to 1 Volt at a current of 1 Amp. In one second, 1 Watt will transfer 1 Joule of energy.

There could be a number of reasons. A 7805 has three pins: Voltage in, voltage out and an earth.

If the earth is not tied to the earth reference (ground) of the circuit, the output will be held close to the input voltage.

If there are no suppression capacitors on the inputs and outputs, high frequency oscillation can be present and at a level where some meters will read it as a DC shift.

The IC may be damaged. It has a maximum input voltage of around 35V (dependent on the specific IC). Exceeding the input voltage doesn't do the IC any good at all.

The other possibility is that the output side of the IC is being fed with a voltage from another part of the circuit.

Keep taking the meter readings with the IC in circuit and out of circuit and one of these errors is likely to show up.

The op amp can only output so high a voltage; this is limited by the positive and negative voltages applied to the op amp. Your input signal is too strong, or your amplifier is set up to have too much gain.

You can do simple resistance tests on the various diode junctions. Measure each of the pairs of diode junctions. Collector-emitter, collector-base, base-emitter. Read the resistance of one junction and then read the same junction with the polarity probes switched. One side should read very high resistance, over 1 megohms. And the other should read a moderate resistance, a few hundred thousand ohms. If this is the case for all three junctions, the transistor should be a good working one.

Because you touch yourself at night.

Resistor placed in the emitter lead of a transistor circuit to minimize the effects of temperature on the emitter-base junction resistance.

If they are the same voltage a logic gate could combine them in various ways.

A ring modulator fed from two square waves would make interesting sounds.

An op-amp would combine the waves.

A single fet would combine them. One signal flowing from source to drain modulated by the second frequency applied to the gate.