Absolutism (Political)

The opposite of an absolute monarch is a constitutional monarch, where the monarch's powers are limited by a constitution or laws of the state. In this system, the monarch often serves a ceremonial role, while elected representatives and a parliamentary system hold the actual governing power. This contrasts with absolute monarchy, where the monarch wields unrestricted authority.

Suleiman the Magnificent is considered an absolute monarch because he wielded comprehensive control over the Ottoman Empire, centralizing power and authority in his hands. He enacted legal reforms, established a formalized system of governance, and expanded the empire's territories through military conquests. Suleiman's authority was underscored by his role as both a political leader and a religious figure, as he was the Caliph of Islam, allowing him to unify and govern diverse populations under a single rule. His reign exemplified the principles of absolute monarchy, where the monarch's decisions were final and not subject to external constraints.

The most common type of economy in an absolute monarchy, particularly in medieval times, is a feudal economy. In this system, land is owned by the monarch and granted to nobles in exchange for loyalty and military service. The nobles, in turn, manage the land and provide protection to peasants, who work the land in return for shelter and a portion of the produce. This hierarchical structure creates a system of obligations and dependencies that characterizes the economic relationships of the time.

The benefits of having an absolute monarch include the potential for swift decision-making and political stability, as the monarch can enact laws and policies without the need for consensus or lengthy legislative processes. This can lead to efficient governance, especially in times of crisis. However, the drawbacks include the risk of tyranny and oppression, as absolute power can lead to the abuse of authority and a lack of accountability, often resulting in violations of individual rights and freedoms. Additionally, the absence of checks and balances may hinder social progress and responsiveness to the needs of the populace.

Absolute monarchies typically generate revenue through a combination of taxation, state-owned enterprises, and control over natural resources. Taxes are levied on citizens and businesses, while the monarchy may also own and operate profitable industries, such as oil or mining. Additionally, they can benefit from international investments and tourism, leveraging their cultural heritage and historical sites. Lastly, they may receive financial support from foreign governments or private entities to maintain their rule and stabilize the economy.

Frederick the Great of Prussia is often considered an absolutist ruler, as he centralized power and reinforced the authority of the monarchy. However, he also implemented Enlightenment ideas, promoting religious tolerance, legal reforms, and education. While he exercised strong control over state affairs, his policies reflected a blend of absolutism and enlightened governance, distinguishing him from traditional absolutist monarchs. Thus, he can be seen as a complex figure straddling both approaches.

The idea that rulers should be both strong and enlightened is often associated with the philosophy of Enlightenment thinkers, particularly those like Montesquieu and Rousseau. They believed that effective governance required a balance of power and wisdom, emphasizing that a ruler should be knowledgeable and just, guiding society towards progress and reason. This concept laid the groundwork for modern democratic ideals, advocating for leaders who are not only authoritative but also promote the common good through rational governance.

The exercise of complete absolutism was often limited by several factors, including the presence of powerful nobility who could challenge the authority of the monarch, as well as institutional structures like parliaments and councils that held significant influence. Economic constraints, such as the need for taxation and revenue generation, often required monarchs to negotiate with various societal groups. Additionally, popular uprisings and social unrest could undermine a ruler's authority, necessitating a balance between absolute power and the realities of governance.

An example of absolutism under Peter the Great is his extensive centralization of power, which he enacted through reforms that diminished the influence of the nobility and the Russian Orthodox Church. He established a merit-based system for government positions, allowing him to personally control the military and bureaucracy. Peter also enforced his will through military campaigns and the establishment of St. Petersburg as a "window to the West," reflecting his desire to modernize Russia and assert his absolute authority.

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet supported absolutism primarily because he believed in the divine right of kings, which posited that monarchs were appointed by God and held authority over their subjects. He argued that a strong, centralized authority was essential for maintaining order and stability in society. Bossuet's theological and philosophical writings emphasized that the king's power was both justified and necessary for the common good, reinforcing the idea that absolute monarchy was a divinely sanctioned form of governance.

The Commonwealth was a republican form of government established in England from 1649 to 1660, following the English Civil War and the execution of King Charles I. It aimed to abolish monarchy and promote a more representative system, led by figures like Oliver Cromwell. The Commonwealth ultimately ended with the Restoration in 1660, as political instability, economic difficulties, and a desire for stability led to the public's support for reinstating the monarchy, which aligned with the emerging age of absolutism that favored centralized royal power.

The age of absolutism and the rise of absolute rulers often led to the centralization of power, diminishing the influence of nobility and local governance. This concentration of authority could foster stability and economic growth in the short term, but it also sowed the seeds for future discontent and revolutions as citizens sought greater representation and rights. Additionally, the unchecked power of absolute rulers frequently resulted in oppressive regimes, leading to social unrest and eventual challenges to their authority. Ultimately, these dynamics contributed to the emergence of modern democratic ideals and constitutional governance.

The Age of Enlightenment, spanning the late 17th to the 18th century, emphasized reason, individualism, and scientific inquiry, challenging traditional authority and advocating for democratic principles. In contrast, the age of absolutism, which preceded it, was characterized by monarchs wielding centralized power and divine right, limiting individual freedoms and intellectual discourse. Enlightenment thinkers criticized the dogmas of absolutism, promoting ideas of liberty, equality, and rational governance that ultimately laid the groundwork for modern democratic societies. Thus, the Enlightenment represented a shift from authoritarian rule towards ideals of freedom and rationality.

Absolute monarchy, as seen in the later phases of the Roman Empire, centralized power in the hands of the emperor, diminishing the influence of traditional republican institutions and the Senate. This shift led to increased stability and efficiency in governance but also contributed to the erosion of civic participation and the decline of political freedoms. The concentration of power facilitated the implementation of reforms and military campaigns, yet it also made the state vulnerable to tyranny and civil unrest, ultimately impacting the empire's longevity.

The Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the rise of Protestantism, which diminished the church's influence over political matters. As monarchs sought to consolidate power and assert their independence from papal authority, they embraced the idea of absolutism, where the ruler held supreme authority. This shift allowed kings and queens to justify their control over both religious and secular life, often positioning themselves as divinely ordained leaders. Thus, the Reformation indirectly facilitated the rise of absolutist states by prompting rulers to strengthen their centralized power in the wake of religious fragmentation.

Absolutism often leads to the concentration of power in a single ruler, which can result in tyranny and oppression, as there are few checks on the ruler's authority. This concentration can stifle dissent and limit individual freedoms, leading to civil unrest or rebellion. Additionally, an absolutist regime may struggle with ineffective governance if the ruler lacks the necessary skills or knowledge, as decision-making is centralized. Finally, the lack of political pluralism can hinder societal progress and innovation, as alternative viewpoints and ideas are suppressed.

An enlightened member of society refers to an individual who possesses a deep understanding of social, cultural, and ethical issues, often characterized by open-mindedness, critical thinking, and a commitment to justice and equality. Such a person is aware of their own biases and actively seeks to challenge ignorance or prejudice. They often advocate for progressive change and promote the well-being of all members of society, striving to create a more inclusive and informed community.

William the Conqueror established a form of governance that laid the groundwork for a strong centralized monarchy in England, but he did not embody absolute monarchy in the modern sense. His rule was characterized by a feudal system where power was distributed among nobles who held lands in exchange for loyalty and military service. While he wielded significant authority and made sweeping changes, including the Domesday Book for taxation and land management, he still relied on the support of his barons and the Church, indicating a more complex relationship between monarchy and feudal obligations.

The Austrian monarchy struggled to establish a highly centralized absolutist state due to its diverse ethnic composition and regional autonomy. The vast Habsburg Empire encompassed various nationalities, each with distinct languages, cultures, and legal systems, making uniform governance challenging. Additionally, powerful local nobility and entrenched regional privileges resisted central authority, while the monarchy's reliance on negotiation and compromise further diluted its ability to enforce centralized control. As a result, the empire remained a patchwork of semi-autonomous regions rather than a cohesive absolutist state.

The Palace of Versailles became the model for the palaces of subsequent absolutist monarchs. Built during the reign of Louis XIV in France, its grandeur and opulence symbolized royal authority and the divine right of kings. The design and layout of Versailles influenced many European rulers, who sought to emulate its architectural splendor and centralized power within their own realms. This trend established a standard for royal residences that emphasized both luxury and political control.

Absolutism, which emphasizes the absolute authority of a ruler, could justify a coup d'état by arguing that the existing government has failed to fulfill its divine or natural mandate to govern effectively. Supporters of a coup might claim that the ruler's actions are illegitimate or tyrannical, thus justifying their removal in order to restore order and the rightful governance that benefits the state. Additionally, proponents could argue that a strong, centralized authority is necessary to maintain stability, and a coup could be framed as a means to achieve that end.

The old regime in France, prior to the French Revolution, was characterized by a feudal system and the monarchy held significant power, but it was not an absolute monarchy in the strictest sense. France became an absolute monarchy under King Louis XIV, who reigned from 1643 to 1715, famously declaring, "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state"). During his reign, the monarchy centralized power and diminished the influence of the nobility and other institutions. After his reign, the system began to face challenges, ultimately leading to the revolution in 1789.

Following France's example of absolutist rule, three countries that adopted similar governance were Spain, Russia, and Prussia. In Spain, the Habsburgs and later the Bourbons centralized power, while Russia saw the rise of absolutism under leaders like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. Prussia, especially under Frederick II, implemented strong centralized authority, aligning itself with the absolutist model. These nations mirrored France's move towards consolidating power in the hands of a single ruler.

Napoleon III, who ruled France from 1852 to 1870, is often characterized as a despot due to his authoritarian governance style. He established the Second Empire, curtailing civil liberties, restricting press freedoms, and suppressing political opposition. While he implemented significant economic and social reforms, his centralized control and reliance on state power reflected despotic tendencies. Ultimately, his rule combined elements of autocracy with some modernization efforts, complicating a straightforward label as a despot.

The English Long Parliament, which convened from 1640 to 1660, did not enact legislation supporting absolutism; rather, it was a key period in which Parliament challenged the authority of King Charles I and sought to limit his power. The Parliament's actions, including the passage of the Triennial Act and the Grand Remonstrance, were aimed at establishing parliamentary sovereignty and addressing grievances against royal authority. The conflict ultimately led to the English Civil War, reflecting a significant pushback against absolutist rule.