Genetic Engineering

Typically, once a genetic disorder has been corrected in an individual through gene transfer, they would not pass the disorder on to their offspring. The corrected genes would be present in the reproductive cells and would be passed on without the genetic disorder.

Cellular slime molds are distinguished from plasmodial slime molds by the presence of individual, distinct cells that remain separate even during the feeding stage. In contrast, plasmodial slime molds have a multinucleate, single cell mass during feeding.

Punnett squares, pedigrees, and genetic diagrams can be used to explain the results of genetic crosses. These tools help illustrate how genes are inherited and predict the possible outcomes of offspring based on parental traits.

After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cell division through mitosis. The daughter cells continue to divide and differentiate into various cell types, forming tissues, organs, and ultimately leading to growth of the organism. This process is regulated by genetic and environmental factors to ensure proper development and growth of the diploid animal.

A squadron has only 4 members.

Legions, battalions, and teams can have hundreds, if not thousands, of troopers fighting together.

a procedure used for the treatment of nitrocellulose or nylon membranes following Northern or Southern transfer and before the use of labelled nucleic acid probes to detect specific sequences on the blot. The intention is to block the surface of the membrane to decrease non‐specific binding of the probe. A variety of blocking agents can be used.

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Meiosis is a process of cell division that creates genetically diverse offspring by shuffling and recombining genes during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells). This genetic variation is important for evolution and adaptation in populations.

A virus attaches to a host cell by recognizing specific receptors on the cell surface. It then injects its genetic material, either DNA or RNA, into the cell. Once inside, the virus hijacks the cell's machinery to replicate its genetic material and produce more virus particles.

Quaternary structure. This structure results from the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains to form a functional protein complex. The individual chains in the complex can interact through various types of bonds, such as hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.

Both the egg (oocyte) and the sperm contribute genetically to the zygote. The egg carries half of the genetic material (23 chromosomes) and the sperm also carries the other half (23 chromosomes), resulting in a total of 46 chromosomes in the zygote.

In two main ways. There is the independent orientation of tetrads in prophase I of meiosis and this gives two ways chromosomes can be inserted into gametes. Then there is crossing over, where the male and female chromosomes, in their tetrads, swap sections of genetic material also in prophase I.

When gametes come together to form zygotes then the fertilization is random thus adding more genetic variation to the organism.

Cellular blueprints, or "genes" are stored within the nucleus of the cell, and are found in the form of DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. Certain lengths of DNA are instructions that code for all of the cellular components, or proteins. The DNA is processed via a process known as transcription, where the DNA instructions are copied, and translation (which occurs in the cytoplasm), where the actual directions are "read", and translated into building blocks called amino acids, which are used to build proteins and other components within the cell.

Two genetic disorders are Turner's syndrome and cystic fibrosis.

Nucleotides are the actual physical molecular structures of the two nucleic acids i.e. DNA and RNA. Nucleotides have three separate molecular components a sugar DNA = deoxynucleic acid which means it has one less OH group than RNA = ribonucleic acid. RNA has two OH side groups attached to the pentose (five sided) hetero-cyclic closed ring while DNA has one OH- and one H+. The missing oxygen or oxo side group is used as a hydrolyzing agent (synthesis of one H2O molecule) for dissolving or adding the three types of phosphates groups (monophosphates = PO4-, diphosphates = P2O8-, and triphosphates = P3012-. The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the "backbone of the twisted double helix strands which are connected by the 2 purine and 3 pyrimidine bases. Standard Central Dogma has consistently demonstrated the purine nucleotide adenosine family bonds with the pyrimidine family thymidine, with two hydrogen bonds connecting the A+T covalent pair; in DNA the purine guanosine family has a triple bond with the pyrimidine Cytidine family i.e. G+C. In the current schema DNA ATGC substitutes a second partner for adenosine i.e. uricidine family replaces the thymidine family. The G+C triple bonded pairing stays the same in the RNA version of the genetic code. The DNA (ATGC) and RNA (AUGC) nucleic acids are the molecular structures which make up the "degenerate" 64 triplet i.e. 3 consecutive nucleotides = 1 codon. There are 64 codons in both the DNA and RNA genetic codes but my group Novagon DNA has spent the last nine years demonstrating the DNA/RNA Genetic Code is missing one purine family i.e. inosine family and nature's true three dimensional has six nucleotides or three pairs of covalent purine-pyrmidine pairings e.g. A1+T1, U1+ I1, C1+G1 and T2+A2, I2+C2, U2+G2. This combined dRNA code accounts for the mysterious wobble anti-codons pairings which are essential to the synthesis of the protein secondary structures which to date has been totally handled by the AUGC RNA code. Novagon's triple helix genetic code accounts for many unexplained transcription and translation events which occur in both 3' UTR and 5'UTR (untranslated protein exon gene sequences. i.e. alternative splice sites, A to I and C to U post transcriptional editing of original DNA template strands which totally contradicts the foundation of the Central Dogma Theory which declares a one way linear relationship of DNA to RNA to Protein Polypeptides. mRNA transcripts can be changed from the original DNA amino acid peptide synthesis "production request" if local conditions warrant amino acid substitutions which are highly likely to create SNP (single nucleotide polymorphic mutations) which underlie many genetic and metabolic disorders and diseases. DNA appears to be mainly responsible for faithful replication of gene sequences paramount for passing down phenotype instruction sets such that inheritance of genetic material from generation to generation is accurately encoded and decoded with minuscule mutational errors which often lead to expanded protein and enzyme functionality. RNA on the other hand is the active, operational processes involved in the nucleus, cytoplasm and extracellular matrix in making proteins, nucleic acids, and quite possibly carbohydrate and lipid macromolecules essential for cellular tissue, organ, and organismic or species health and fitness for continued phylogenetic growth and expansion. In a nutshell nucleotides are the actual atomic-molecular structures including the all important functional side groups which are the component building blocks for the DNA and RNA nucleic acids which in turn are the basis of the DNA and RNA genetic codes. It is quite ironic that only the base pairs (purine+pyrmidine) are used in the actual encoding and decoding of high throughput proteins, enzymes, hormones, and steroids which have never made a synthetic final product of genetically engineered prescription drugs or food crops which did not have serious adverse, unexpected side effects that frequently resulted in fatalities and inborn errors of metabolic mutations. Another related irony is how the class of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides were first synthesized by nature over a 2.1 to 3.5 billion year time frame. In purine synthesis de novo i.e. from scratch, the closed purine hetero-cyclic base was synthesized only after the PRPP sugar + phosphate components were already assembled. So nature's sugar, phosphate, base has been replaced by scientific man's base, sugar, phosphate order which might be having a significant impact even though the salvage (recycled) and catabolic degradation processes have increased the efficiency of anabolic synthesis and catabolic degradation of the nucleotides, nucleic acids, and amino acids involved in the mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA transcription, translation, and ribosomal protein folding processes.

I wouldn't quite say that there's a "study of cloning" per se, but cloning is a field in genetic engineering.

A genetic mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that can affect an organism's traits. The types of genetic mutations include point mutations (substitution, insertion, deletion), frameshift mutations, and chromosomal mutations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation).

The mutation that causes sickle cell anemia leads to the production of abnormal hemoglobin, which causes red blood cells to become sickle-shaped. These sickle-shaped cells can block blood vessels, impairing blood flow and leading to episodes of pain, tissue damage, and increased risk of infections.

Genetic variation is primarily a result of two main processes: crossing over during meiosis, which shuffles the genetic material on homologous chromosomes, and fertilization, which combines the genetic material from two different individuals. These processes lead to the creation of offspring with unique combinations of genetic information.

No, marijuana clones do not get stronger after every clone. The genetic potential of the plant is determined by the parent plant from which the clone is taken. However, environmental factors such as nutrients, light, and care can influence the overall strength and health of the plant.

I imagine its just an online cDNA library. A cDNA library is of course a collection of cDNA copy sequences. cDNA is where you have mRNA and you use reverse transcriptase to turn a strand of RNA into a DNA equivalent, then use RNAase H to degrade the remaining RNA strand and then use DNA polymerase to create a complete double stranded DNA sequence that is the equivalent of the mRNA. This way you can get the gene without the introns that normal DNA would have.

Control variables are kept constant throughout an experiment to ensure that any changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Experimental variables, on the other hand, are the factors that are deliberately changed by the researcher to observe their effect on the dependent variable.

Alanine is very hydrophobic as it is non-polar at its (medium sized) side chain. This means it will most often be found in the internal regions of a globular protein in an aqueous solution, as it will become buried during the hydrophobic collapse of the early stages of protein folding. There will be exceptions to this when the majority of amino acids near it in the polypeptide chain are hydrophilic.

Serine has a polar hydroxyl group, making it slightly hydrophilic. You would therefore expect it to appear on the surface of the protein more often, or lining aqueous channels. It is only a little hydrophilic though, so it would not be surprising to find a more even distribution of serine around both the internal regions and external surfaces of the protein. More importantly though, the hydroxyl group of serine can be very reactive, particularly in certain environments produced by surrounding amino acids. Since it is very reactive, it is a common components of the catalytic (active) site of enzymes. For example, the catalytic triad of some protease enzymes.

During crossing-over, homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, leading to the recombination of alleles. This process increases genetic variation in offspring by producing new combinations of alleles. Crossing-over occurs during meiosis, specifically during prophase I.

Routine treatments for genetic disorders include gene therapy, enzyme replacement therapy, medication management to control symptoms, dietary modifications, and counseling for patients and their families. These treatments aim to alleviate symptoms, manage complications, and improve quality of life for individuals affected by genetic disorders. Research into new treatments, such as CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, is also ongoing to develop more effective therapies.