Learning Theories

Brown (1987), for example, presents three concepts of process, style, and strategy. He further claims that these terms are sometimes used interchangeably. He distinguishes the word "process" from "style" claiming that the former is a general mental activity while the latter is an individual mental activity. He also believes that both concepts are different from "strategy" which refers to idiosyncratic mental activities. The mere existence of these concepts, differences between them, degrees of overlap and interactions among them, and simply the way they function in relation to different language elements are all open to empirical investigation.

These concepts are all involved in the learning process which is a mysterious

phenomenon by itself. Different types of learning such as signal learning, stimulus response learning, verbal association learning, multiple discrimination learning,concept learning, and learning through problem solving are well-known in the field.

There are other less known or even unknown kinds of learning such as discovery learning, rote learning, inductive learning, deductive learning, and meaningful learning. Again, similarities, differences, degrees of overlap among these factors, and the appropriateness of each type for certain individuals or groups as well as subject matters appropriate to each method provide ample opportunities for research in TEFL.

Another group of variables in cognitive domain is formed by the interaction of

different processes when two or more languages are learned concurrently. Transfer,interference, overgeneralization, and other processes and phenomena resulting from such interactions are just a few areas for research. It requires extensive investigation on similarities and differences between two or more languages, i.e., contrastive linguistics, as well as type and sources of errors, i.e., error analysis, to shed some lights on the intricacies of these processes.

The third factor in this domain is cognitive style which constitutes an area of research for those who are interested in matching methods of presenting materials and the most convenient way of teaching materials. Cognitive style is defined as "self-consistent and enduring individual differences in cognitive domain and functioning". According to cognitive domain, some people are field dependant, i.e., who depend on the totality rather than individual parts, while some others are field independent, i.e., who are willing to proceed from particular to totality. To investigate the effect of cognitive style on learning will provide ample opportunities for TEFL students to do research.

thanks

Eating a balanced breakfast can provide essential nutrients and energy to support cognitive function and learning. Breakfast helps stabilize blood sugar levels, improving focus and attention. Skipping breakfast may lead to reduced cognitive performance and learning abilities.

Social perception involves interpreting and understanding the behaviors, attitudes, and emotions of others. Its purpose is to help us make sense of social situations, form impressions of others, and navigate interactions effectively. By accurately perceiving social cues, we can adapt our behavior, make informed decisions, and build successful relationships.

Test reliability ensures consistent results when the test is repeated, indicating the test is reliable and consistent. Test validity ensures that the test measures what it is supposed to measure, providing meaningful results. Both reliability and validity are essential for ensuring the accuracy and effectiveness of a test in assessing the intended construct or concept.

Ann us bitten by the neighbor's dog. Now, when ever she sees a dog in the neighborhood, she feels afraid and runs away. She still enjoys petting her own family's dog. What is the condition stimulus?

Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure in assessing what it intends to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency of the measure. Establishing validity involves multiple factors such as construct validity, content validity, and criterion validity, making it more complex than evaluating reliability. It requires more evidence and validation processes to ensure that the measure is actually measuring what it is supposed to.

Perception refers to how someone is viewed or understood by others, often based on behaviors, interactions, or appearances. Reputation, on the other hand, is the overall judgment or estimation of a person's character, behavior, or actions by a group or community. Perception can influence reputation, but reputation is more focused on established beliefs about a person over time.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism associates two stimuli, leading to a learned response. This process involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response. Over time, the neutral stimulus alone can evoke the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.

When the conditioned stimulus isn't repeated constantly, it must be consistent but not too often. Also, the timing or sequence of the stimulus should be consistent, that is if for a conditioned response to occur a conditioned stimulus was applied within 2 seconds, it should always be applied within that 2 second window. So, to summarize, timing and consistency are the two factors for that should be satisfied for a classical conditioning to be effctive and long lasting.

You can try breaking down the skill into smaller, more manageable parts, provide additional examples or explanations, and offer extra practice opportunities. It may also be beneficial to provide individualized support or peer tutoring.

Im not really sure about the strengths, but 2 of the limitations are that all responses must involve a reflex, therefore what can be learnt is limited. Also, it is difficult to condition infants on their emotions, but there would be no point in using an adult because they will have already learnt which repsonses match which stimuli!

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Psychological influences refer to internal factors that impact an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These can include beliefs, attitudes, motivations, emotions, and cognitive processes that shape how a person perceives and interacts with their environment. Psychological influences play a significant role in shaping an individual's experiences and decision-making.

1. Education: Teachers use operant conditioning to shape students' behavior through positive reinforcement for good behavior and consequences for undesirable behavior.
2. Business: Employers use operant conditioning to motivate employees through rewards and punishments to improve performance and productivity.
3. Sports: Coaches use operant conditioning techniques to reinforce desired behaviors and skills in athletes, shaping their performance on the field.
4. Therapy: Therapists use operant conditioning to modify behaviors in patients with various mental health conditions, such as phobias, by providing rewards for overcoming fears.
5. Parenting: Parents use operant conditioning to encourage positive behaviors in children by providing rewards for good behavior and consequences for negative behavior.

A master's or doctoral degree, and a license, are required for most psychologists. Education and training. A doctoral degree usually is required for independent practice as a psychologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D. or Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, health care services, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and government. Psychologists with a doctoral degree often work in clinical positions or in private practices, but they also sometimes teach, conduct research, or carry out administrative responsibilities. A doctoral degree generally requires 5 to 7 years of graduate study, culminating in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part of graduate study and are necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. degree may be based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical, counseling, and school psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree include at least a 1-year internship. A specialist degree or its equivalent is required in most States for an individual to work as a school psychologist, although a few States still credential school psychologists with master's degrees. A specialist (Ed.S.) degree in school psychology requires a minimum of 3 years of full-time graduate study (at least 60 graduate semester hours) and a 1-year full-time internship. Because their professional practice addresses educational and mental health components of students' development, school psychologists' training includes coursework in both education and psychology. People with a master's degree in psychology may work as industrial-organizational psychologists. They also may work as psychological assistants under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists and may conduct research or psychological evaluations. A master's degree in psychology requires at least 2 years of full-time graduate study. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting and a master's thesis based on an original research project. Competition for admission to graduate psychology programs is keen. Some universities require applicants to have an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only coursework in basic psychology with additional courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences and in statistics and mathematics. A bachelor's degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs. Bachelor's degree holders may also work as research or administrative assistants for psychologists. Some work as technicians in related fields, such as marketing research. Many find employment in other areas, such as sales, service, or business management. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry-level positions. However, competition for these jobs is keen because this is one of the few ways in which one can work as a psychologist without an advanced degree. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology, as well as institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. The National Association of School Psychologists, with the assistance of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, helps to approve advanced degree programs in school psychology. Licensure. Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care-including clinical, counseling, and school psychologists-must meet certification or licensing requirements in all States and the District of Columbia. Licensing laws vary by State and by type of position and require licensed or certified psychologists to limit their practice to areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. Clinical and counseling psychologists usually need a doctorate in psychology, an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, all States require that applicants pass an examination. Most State licensing boards administer a standardized test, and many supplement that with additional oral or essay questions. Some States require continuing education for renewal of the license. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) awards the Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NCSP) designation, which recognizes professional competency in school psychology at a national, rather than State, level. Currently, 29 States recognize the NCSP and allow those with the certification to transfer credentials from one State to another without taking a new certification exam. In States that recognize the NCSP, the requirements for certification or licensure and those for the NCSP often are the same or similar. Requirements for the NCSP include the completion of 60 graduate semester hours in school psychology; a 1,200-hour internship, 600 hours of which must be completed in a school setting; and a passing score on the National School Psychology Examination. Other qualifications. Aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, good communication skills, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important qualities for people wishing to do clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work both independently and as part of a team. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities, because achieving results in the psychological treatment of patients or in research may take a long time. Certification and advancement.The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) recognizes professional achievement by awarding specialty certification in 13 different areas. Candidates for ABPP certification need a doctorate in psychology, postdoctoral training in their specialty, several years of experience, professional endorsements, and are required to pass the specialty board examination. Psychologists can improve their advancement opportunities by earning an advanced degree and by participation in continuing education. Many psychologists opt to start their own practice after gaining experience working in the field. For the source and more detailed information concerning your request, click on the related links section (U.S. Department of Labor) indicated below this answer box.

A master's or doctoral degree, and a license, are required for most psychologists. Education and training. A doctoral degree usually is required for independent practice as a psychologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D. or Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, health care services, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and government. Psychologists with a doctoral degree often work in clinical positions or in private practices, but they also sometimes teach, conduct research, or carry out administrative responsibilities. A doctoral degree generally requires 5 to 7 years of graduate study, culminating in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part of graduate study and are necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. degree may be based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical, counseling, and school psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree include at least a 1-year internship. A specialist degree or its equivalent is required in most States for an individual to work as a school psychologist, although a few States still credential school psychologists with master's degrees. A specialist (Ed.S.) degree in school psychology requires a minimum of 3 years of full-time graduate study (at least 60 graduate semester hours) and a 1-year full-time internship. Because their professional practice addresses educational and mental health components of students' development, school psychologists' training includes coursework in both education and psychology. People with a master's degree in psychology may work as industrial-organizational psychologists. They also may work as psychological assistants under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists and may conduct research or psychological evaluations. A master's degree in psychology requires at least 2 years of full-time graduate study. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting and a master's thesis based on an original research project. Competition for admission to graduate psychology programs is keen. Some universities require applicants to have an undergraduate major in psychology. Others prefer only coursework in basic psychology with additional courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences and in statistics and mathematics. A bachelor's degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs. Bachelor's degree holders may also work as research or administrative assistants for psychologists. Some work as technicians in related fields, such as marketing research. Many find employment in other areas, such as sales, service, or business management. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry-level positions. However, competition for these jobs is keen because this is one of the few ways in which one can work as a psychologist without an advanced degree. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology, as well as institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. The National Association of School Psychologists, with the assistance of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, helps to approve advanced degree programs in school psychology. Licensure. Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care-including clinical, counseling, and school psychologists-must meet certification or licensing requirements in all States and the District of Columbia. Licensing laws vary by State and by type of position and require licensed or certified psychologists to limit their practice to areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. Clinical and counseling psychologists usually need a doctorate in psychology, an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, all States require that applicants pass an examination. Most State licensing boards administer a standardized test, and many supplement that with additional oral or essay questions. Some States require continuing education for renewal of the license. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) awards the Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NCSP) designation, which recognizes professional competency in school psychology at a national, rather than State, level. Currently, 29 States recognize the NCSP and allow those with the certification to transfer credentials from one State to another without taking a new certification exam. In States that recognize the NCSP, the requirements for certification or licensure and those for the NCSP often are the same or similar. Requirements for the NCSP include the completion of 60 graduate semester hours in school psychology; a 1,200-hour internship, 600 hours of which must be completed in a school setting; and a passing score on the National School Psychology Examination. Other qualifications. Aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, good communication skills, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important qualities for people wishing to do clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work both independently and as part of a team. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities, because achieving results in the psychological treatment of patients or in research may take a long time. Certification and advancement.The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) recognizes professional achievement by awarding specialty certification in 13 different areas. Candidates for ABPP certification need a doctorate in psychology, postdoctoral training in their specialty, several years of experience, professional endorsements, and are required to pass the specialty board examination. Psychologists can improve their advancement opportunities by earning an advanced degree and by participation in continuing education. Many psychologists opt to start their own practice after gaining experience working in the field. For the source and more detailed information concerning your request, click on the related links section (U.S. Department of Labor) indicated below this answer box.

Personal conditioning refers to the process by which an individual's behavior, beliefs, and attitudes are influenced and shaped by past experiences, social norms, and environmental factors. This conditioning can impact how a person perceives themselves, others, and the world around them, and may influence their decision-making and responses to various situations.

A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is inherently rewarding to an organism without the need for prior learning or conditioning, such as food, water, or sex. These reinforcers satisfy basic biological needs and are often effective in shaping behavior.

B. F. Skinner was part of the behaviorial school of thought. He came up with the idea of operant conditioning.

Growth and development are essential for individuals to reach their full potential and achieve their goals. They allow for personal and professional advancement, increased knowledge and skills, and overall improvement in quality of life. Continuous growth and development also contribute to adaptability, resilience, and innovation in a rapidly changing world.

Your personal learning style is the way that you prefer to learn. Everybody has a different way of learning things. If you know how you learn best, then you can make sure that you study by using your best style.

The eight different styles of learning are:

Auditory/Musical - you prefer using sound and music to learn

Bodily-kinesthetic - you prefer using your body, hands, and sense of touch to learn

Linguistic/Verbal - you prefer using words, as in speech or writing, to learn

Mathematical/Logical - you prefer using logic, reasoning, and systemic learning

Social/Interpersonal - you prefer to learn in groups, or with other people

Solitary/Intrapersonal - you prefer to learn alone and use self-study classes

Visual/Spatial - you prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding to learn

IQ tests and achievement tests measure different things in learners. Achievement tests only measure what the student has learned in a particular subject while IQ tests measure how well you will do in the world.

Yes, intelligence is influenced by both heredity and environmental factors. Studies have shown that genetics play a role in determining intelligence, but environmental factors such as education, nutrition, and opportunities also contribute to cognitive development.