Quantum Mechanics

One type of energy level would be in the Bohr model of the atom, suggesting that electrons are held in discrete energy levels around the nucleus. Any of these electrons may be excited to a higher energy level if sufficient energy is applied to the atom. In some materials, the excited electrons spontaneously return to their original energy level by releasing the extra energy as light photons. This is how fluorescent lights work.

With the electric and magnetic properties of empty space, Maxwell's Equations predicted the speed of light on purely theoretical grounds, in the 1870s.

The predicted value was confirmed later, when measurement became possible.

All matter is made up of 'atoms', which are generally treated as tiny particles, although they have been shown to also have the properties of waves (just like light has both particle and wave nature). They are constantly in motion, and move faster in matter at a higher temperature. The temperature at which this motion is zero is -273C or 0K, absolute zero and is impossible to achieve.

The Fabry-Perot interferometer is a device used to measure the spectral characteristics of light. It consists of multiple parallel reflective surfaces that create interference fringes from multiple reflections of light. This enables precise measurement of wavelengths and spectral lines in the light source.

its compose of two (2) significant propertie: Surface tension and Viscosity (just like the liquid matter)

Answer:
It is not clear . Some books advocates Max plank, some Neils Bohr , some Erwin Schrodinger and some even say Heisenberg . Definitely Max Planck. No Doubt !

Answer:
Max Planck was the first to use ideas of quantum theory when he solved the "ultraviolet catastrophe" in December of 1900. At the time, however, neither he nor the vast majority of the scientific community noticed the implications of his "quantization of energy."

In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper on the photoelectric effect in which he described energy transfer via light in the form of photons. He was one of the first physicists to acknowledge that particles could only obtain certain discrete energies.

Many textbooks, however, will credit Max Planck as the "father of quantum theory."

Atoms undergo chemical reactions because some electron configurations are more stable than others, specifically, a full outer shell is more stable than an incomplete outer shell. Outer shells can be filled either by gaining electrons or by giving up electrons (if an atom loses all the electrons in its outer shell, then a previously inner shell becomes the new outer shell). So, some atoms find it easier to give up electrons, if they just need to give up a few, and some atoms find it easier to gain electrons, if they just need to gain a few. So, these two kinds are made for each other, in effect. For example, sodium likes to give up an electron and chlorine likes to gain an electron, so if sodium gives an electron to chlorine, both atoms gain a stable electron configuration. In so doing, sodium get a charge of plus one and chlorine gets a charge of minus one (because the electron has a charge of minus one). And then they have opposite electrical charges and they therefore attract each other, hence, they are both ions and they are ionically bonded to each other.

In some text books on physical chemistry it is stated that if an electron followed the classical laws of mechanics it would continue to emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation until it fell to the nucleus. It is not sensible to consider the spectrum of emitted electromagnetic radiation because its wavelength is a function of the Schrodinger equation under the influence of the Hamilton operator. So my only have desecrate values. A classical picture of the atom would not obey the Schrodinger equation so there is no way of predicting the way it would emit energy.

If this question is related to the photoelectric effect the answer should be as follows

(but I have learned the work function for sodium is 2.35 eV)

Photoelectric effect: Photon energy h f = W + KE

h := Planck constant

f:= freqency of emitted light

W:= Work function in Joule 1.82 eV * 1.6*10-19 J/eV = 2.91 * 10-19J

KE: kinetic energy of electrons that have been released from metal

When f0 is threshold frequency: KE = 0

(photon energy h*f0 is just enough to free electrons but not to give them kinetic energy)

h*f0 = W

f0 = W/h = 2.91 * 10-19J / 6.63*10-34 Js = 4.39 * 1014 Hz

wavelength = c / f0 = 3.0 * 108 m/s / 4.39 * 1014 Hz = 6.84 * 10-7 m = 684 nm

Answer (1):
I apologize for my answer but physicists assume everything is round. It just makes the math easier.

Answer (2):
Saying that an object is round suggests that it can be observed (seen, touched, tasted... well maybe not tasted). Quantum theory describes the behavior of objects too small to be seen, even in principle. Unfortunately it is impossible to even imagine what an electron "looks" like. This fact does not stop us from attempting to imagine it, and what we produce in our mind's eye is an electron that looks like a sphere of charge, or an electron that looks like a cloud of fog distributed through space, or some other model of an electron which is in some way not entirely correct.

The first level can hold 2, the second can hold 8, and the third can hold 18 electrons. However, the outer level never holds more than 8; therefore an atom containing only 3 levels will have only 8 in the 3rd level.

The speed of light depends on the medium through which it passes. The fastest that light can travel is the speed of light in a vacuum (c), which is 299,792,458m/s. The permittivity and permeability of the medium through which it passes are what reduces the speed of light.

For example, while the speed of light in air can be simplified to being approximately 3*10^8m/s, in an optical fibre, it is reduced to approximately 2*10^8m/s, that is, two thirds of it's speed in a vacuum.

Light will easily propagate through an insulating medium, though will not do so through a conductor, as the electric and magnetic fields generated by the electromagnetic radiation will interact with those of the conductor.

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the behavior of particles at the smallest scales. It involves concepts like superposition, where particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously, as well as particle-wave duality, where particles exhibit properties of both particles and waves. Quantum mechanics is essential for understanding the behavior of atoms and subatomic particles.

Absolutely not; uncertainty does not go out the window. On the contrary, quantum effects become observable at the macro level in the form of the bizarre Bose-Einstein Condensate. The Bose-Einstein Condensate has been created in the lab by several people. This question highlights something wonderful. Particle physics views particles as particles in the ordinary sense. A particle is a contained, coherent object, with dimensions and other characteristics of matter. The uncertainty principle doesn't have to do with developing better technology or better measurement techniques. It has to do with the fundamental property of matter that some "particles" are not what they seem. Einstein reasoned (this is a non-professional summary) that if the quantum explanation of matter is correct, then something else would have to happen at absolute zero other than 'fixed' locations of sub-atomic particles. He came up with an answer that was decades ahead of its time. Inspired by the work of Bose, Einstein worked his way to the Bose-Einstein Condensate, which was actually produced seventy years after Bose' and Einstein's insight. In a way, because at absolute zero all "particles" go to the lowest possible energy potential, the Condensate becomes a single fuzzy, cloudy blob-like atom; all particles become as if they are one particle.

Quantum theory was developed by multiple scientists in the early 20th century, including Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin Schrödinger. Each of them made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory.

(solid-state physics) Unusual properties of extremely small crystals that arise from confinement of electrons to small regions of space in one, two, or three dimensions.

Source: Answers.com

Classical mechanics was founded by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century with his work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," also known as the Principia. Newton's laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation are fundamental concepts in classical mechanics.

matter is just a broad definition for different substances that make up life. This may sound confusing, so here's a better way to put it. Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Water can be a liquid, gas, or solid so it is made up of matter, or lots of atoms of the same type. Also, oxygen is a gas so it is made up of matter, or atoms of oxygen. Does that mean they are the same things? No! Each element in the periodic table is made up of a different matter, thus living things and the universe are made out of many different mixed matters. However, there is no difference in science. Anything made up of many atoms of the same type is made out of matter.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and momentum of a particle. This principle arises from the wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics, where the act of measuring one quantity disrupts the other. Mathematically, the principle is represented by the inequality Δx * Δp ≥ ħ/2, where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δp is the uncertainty in momentum, and ħ is the reduced Planck constant.

A quantum dispute refers to a conflict or disagreement that arises when individuals or parties have differing interpretations or understandings of quantum mechanics or principles related to quantum physics. This can occur in scientific research, theoretical discussions, or technological applications involving quantum phenomena. Resolving quantum disputes may require careful analysis, experimentation, and collaboration among experts in the field.

There is no substitute for attending university classes on the subject, also participating in research related to any of those fields is very helpful in linking the concepts with application.

As for on your own, I highly recommend studying textbooks on the subjects available for lend at any public university. Books that only contain concepts (those that are found at chain bookstores) without any math are very limited in helpfulness.

Quantum shell theory was first proposed by the physicist Niels Bohr as an explanation of the unexpected complexity of the spectra of hydrogen and various other atoms. According to Bohr each quantum shell represents a certain state of energy, attributed to the electron orbiting within that shell. So an electron within the lowest shell would be orbiting at the orbit closest to the nucleus, and thus has the least energy, whereas an electron within a higher shell would be orbiting at the next closest orbit to the nucleus, and thus has a bit more energy by a discrete amount as given by Planck. However, it was noted that this explanation, although it worked perfectly with hydrogen, became more and more inaccurate as the atomic mass of the element in question increased. Therefore, later the electrons and nucleic particles in Bohr's quantum shell theory, with its discrete, pointlike particles, was augmented by another description from wave mechanics, based on Schrodinger's equation, that envisioned Bohr's discrete particles as a sort of vibrating instrument- although what exactly it is that vibrates, and what exact relation it bears to the particle, did not seem to be clear at the time (and is still ambiguous to some extent now). After the assertions of wave mechanics were successfully tested (such as the predicted diffraction of electrons etc.), its description was recognized for the wonder it was, and nowadays replace quantum shell theory as a more accurate and complete description for the working of the atom. This is not to say, however, that quantum shell theory was disproved, just as the dawn of relativity does not disprove Newtonian mechanics. All the modern quantum mechanics, with its powerful wave equation, has done was to replace Bohr's more naive view with a more mature, complete and accurate understanding of the working of the atom. The fact that Bohr was superseded does not mean he was wrong, merely that his description was not complete or nearly accurate enough to account for the phenomena observed. Even now, because of the simpler maths, it's still used as a introduction to the weird wonders of the quantum world.