Islam

As of October 2009, there are about 1.57 billion Muslims of all ages living in the world today (in more than 200 countries of the world). This represents 23% of an estimated 2009 world population of 6.8 billion people. (per study done by Pew forum). Refer to related link below.

60% of these Muslims live in Asia, mainly Pakistan, India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh.

20% of these Muslims live in North Africa and the Middle East, from Morocco to Iran.

This shows a person how many Muslims are non-Arab and that Islam allows people of any background to convert and accept the religion. The country currently with the most Muslims is Indonesia.

Refer to related questions below for more information.

Answer 1

What do you mean by Islamic here? If you mean Muslims or followers of Islam and prophet Mohammed, you are talking about 1/3 of the world. Muslims are the 2nd largest population on earth and growing. Islam is the most growing religion on earth why? because when people know it, they love it... It goes into their hearts because it appleals to pure souls, hearts and brains. It is the word of God and that is why it is very close to hearts when they know it. But if you mean extremests, they are not more than in any other religion, as a matter of fact, they are much less because Islam calls for peace, love and cooperation.

Answer 2

The answer above is incorrect. It is much closer to 1/4 of the world. As of October 2009, there are about 1.57 billion Muslims of all ages living in the world today (in more than 200 countries of the world). This represents 23% of an estimated 2009 world population of 6.8 billion people. (per study done by Pew forum).

Answer 1

Everywhere! Ironically, Islam is the fastest growing religion in the United States, Canada, and the UK! The largest Muslim country is Indonesia, and the largest Muslim population (in either a Muslim or a non Muslim country) is India. So, Islam is influential outside of the traditional "Muslim world", or the Arabic-speaking nations.

Answer 2

Islam influences everyone, Christians, Jews, Atheists, Muslims, because Islam is a "Deen" (Meaning Religion or a way of life in Arabic). Many Christians in Arab countries are highly influenced by Islam since they live in a country with a majority of Muslims, even though 80% of Muslims aren't Arab and live worldwide. Islam isn't specific on a group or a culture or any specific thing, it's opened for everyone to read about it and learn about it.

Answer 3

Contrary to Answers 1 & 2, the question is not asking where Islam happens to be influential, but where it is most influential. Islam has a direct effect on politics, general beliefs, societal construction, and legal codes in the Middle East, in South Asia (aside from India), and Northern Africa, and Indonesia. Islam certainly does affect the rest of the world, but its affect is less substantial.

There are 5,600,000 Muslims in America out of 250,300,000 people, which is approximately 2%.

According to:

http://www.islam101.com/history/population2_usa.html

December 1992

{| ! width="112" | State ! width="112" | Muslim Population

(1,000) ! width="112" | Percentage Total Muslim Population ! width="112" | Percent of Total State Population | California1,000 20.03.4 New York800 16.04.7 Illinois420 8.43.6 New Jersey200 4.02.5 Indiana180 3.63.2 Michigan170 3.41.8 Virginia150 3.02.4 Texas140 2.80.7 Ohio130 2.61.2 Maryland70 1.41.4 * Estimates under column 2 have been rounded to the nearest even number.

|}

The Dome of the Rock, being among a complex of buildings on the Temple Mount (the other principal building being the Al-Aqsa Mosque), is one of the holiest sites in Islam, following Mecca and Medina. Its significance stems from the religious beliefs regarding the rock at its heart. According to Islamic tradition, the rock is the spot from where Muhammad ascended to Heaven accompanied by the angel Gabriel.

It is reported that The last holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (May peace and blessings of Allah Karim be upon him) started his heavenly journey (Ma'raaj) from the Dome of the Rock. That is why it is important for the Muslims.

Once that secret is known, a whole new understanding of early Islam in its relation to Christianity comes on the scene that greatly enhances our comprehension of the theological history of the period. It reveals religious attitudes that existed between early Muslims, Jews and Christians.

There is a linguistic key that has great relevance in knowing why the Dome of the Rock was constructed and it provides the true meaning for its existence. Once this is realized, it will help divert Muslim attention away from their present attitude of reverent holiness toward the Dome and it will redirect their attention to the Al Aqsa Mosque located to the south, and it will further emphasize the importance of Mecca in the eyes of all Muslims. This new information will also aid Christians to know that the Dome of the Rock was actually built by Abd al-Malik in 692 A.D. as a rebuilt Christian Church that once stood in its place. The Rock that sanctified the shrine was first an important Christian holy place and NOT an early Jewish sacred spot (nor was it the site of the former Temples).

The first inscription on the outside is meant for all Muslims and the inner inscription is written for Christians ALONE. Jews are not even considered in the context of the inner (or even the outer) inscription. The analysis of these two inscriptions shows that Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock t o satisfy Christian religious matters and it shows that the Dome of the Rock HAD NOTHING TO DO WITH JEWISH MATTERS WHATEVER! The historical evidence shows conclusively that no Jewish person was ever interested in any religious or national manner to the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock until the time of the First Crusade. The area was NEVER considered a sacred spot of Jews until the time of Benjamin of Tudela in the twelfth century (check other articles on the ASK Web Page on the Internet for proof of this). The site of the Dome of the Rock was ONLY of Christian significance BEFORE the time of Omar and Abd al-Malik. It only became important to Muslims in the eighth century to the eleventh, and only important to Jews in the twelfth century.

In actual fact, Omar (the Second Caliph and the first Muslim leader to enter Jerusalem) and Abd al-Malik about 50 years later actually honored the real site of the Jewish Temple that were shown to them on the southeast ridge and over the Gihon Spring (that is the very thing that Omar came to Jerusalem to accomplish) but these early Muslim leaders did NOT show the same type of reverence to the Rock now under the Dome of the Rock. The Dome was built by Muslims to wean Christians from the site, NOT to make it a more sanctified spot in Islam nor did the building of the Dome of the Rock have anything to do with Jewish religious matters or aspirations. Indeed, the "rock" underneath the Dome of the Rock was specifically and significantly of Christian importance and that the Jews up to the time of the Crusades showed no interest whatever in this former Christian spot that Abd al-Malik rebuilt as a Christian type of building (with its characteristic Byzantine dome) in order to wean Christians (who comprised at least 90% of the population of Jerusalem in the seventh century) from New Testament teachings and to win them over to the doctrines then being taught by Islam in and through the Koran.

Now for a question: What was happening at the time the Dome was built that inspired this display of theological symbolism in the erection of certain buildings in Jerusalem and also in Mecca? The answer has relevance in knowing prophecy for us today.

One of the most volatile geopolitical hot spots on earth today revolves around the national or religious possession of this natural outcropping of an oblong rock located in the City of Jerusalem. That spot is the Rock that is presently situated under the building now known as the Dome of the Rock. The building itself is without doubt the most beautiful piece of architecture in the City of Jerusalem and it represents the centerpiece of religious importance in the Holy City for both Muslims and Jews. But strange as it may seem, history shows that Christians also have a stake in its symbolic relevance. Little do Christians know, but that "Rock" was at first considered by both Muslims and Jews (in the early days of Islam) as being a Christian holy place and NOT one that Muslims or Jews thought as having high religious value. That's right! The spot is actually of Christian importance. The real story behind the significance of the site of the Dome of the Rock will cause Muslims and Jews to reevaluate its meaning in relation to their own belief systems that they have erroneously accepted over the centuries since the beginning of Islam.

The proper identity of the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock will truly be a revelation to all modern religious groups when they discover the truth of its biblical relevance. They will be amazed when they realize that the area was NOT the site of the former Temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel and Herod. It was a "Rock" purely of Christian importance and it was formerly recognized by Christians until the seventh century (and even historically until the time of the Crusades) as a most prominent Christian site that was singled out in the Gospel of John as a "Rock" that dealt directly with the mission of Christ Jesus to this earth. The early Christians, Jews and Muslims knew this. The reason the Dome was built by Abd al-Malik in 692 A.D. was to direct Christians away from that "Rock" and to orient them toward the newly constructed Al Aqsa Mosque (which they reckoned to be the re-christened Muslim Temple of Solomon) that was located near the south wall of the Haram esh-Sharif. This in turn was intended to further lead Christians directly toward the City of Mecca where Allah (the Arabic for "God") now had symbolic residence.

To understand why the Dome of the Rock was built by Abd al-Malik, we first have to understand how Muslims looked (and still look) upon the significance of their central shrine in Mecca that is shaped as a cube (as was the Holy of Holies in Solomon's Temple). That holy building of the Muslims contains the black meteorite stone that the ancient Arabs used to worship in their pagan days but which Muhammad placed in the southeast corner of his building called the Ka'aba toward which all Muslims must pray five times a day (and, if possible, visit on pilgrimage at least once). Wherever Muslims find themselves in the world, they must direct their prayers toward the Ka'aba in Mecca. When they go on their pilgrimage, they gather at the southeast angle of the cube-style sanctuary. Though the ground level design is a perfect square, the building is angled so that the corner where the meteorite stone is located is just south of east (at about 100 degrees in direction). The required circumambulation (walking or trotting around) the building begins opposite this stone with the people at first facing north toward the region of the heavens to which all biblical peoples believed God dwelt in His heavenly abode (Psalm 75:6). The Muslim ritual at the Ka'aba has profound astronomical (that is, astrological) significance and it is designed to mimic the motions of the inner and outer planets within our solar system. The Temple at Jerusalem had a similar astronomical basis but with an entirely different liturgical motif. There was in both sanctuaries deep symbolism involved and what was ritualistically accomplished was of religious value.

What did Muslim pilgrims perform at the Ka'aba in Mecca? In the monumental work by Sir Richard Francis Burton in the last century (who was the first Christian or European to clandestinely enter the sacred area of Mecca and describe it in detail), we are informed of the liturgical factors that Muslims were expected to perform when they made their pilgrimage to Mecca. They were to assemble at the southeast corner of the Ka'aba and face northward. Each person's left shoulder was always to be toward the building housing the meteorite stone (idol) as they circle the structure in a counterclockwise fashion (this is the same manner the Jews entered the Temple and exited it). They are required to circle the building seven times (the first three with a slow pace "like walking in sand" and the last four with a faster pace). This represents the movements of the heavenly bodies. The three outer planets as viewed from the earth (Saturn, Jupiter and Mars) move slowly in the heavens relative to the fixed stars, while the inner celestial bodies (Sun, Mercury, Venus and Moon) appear to move faster. In early astrological view, the earth was believed to be the center of the universe with Saturn being the furthest planet away from earth, with Jupiter nearer and Mars nearer still. Then came the Sun, Mercury, Venus and the nearest of all was the Moon. Thus, the first circuit of the Ka'aba was in honor of Saturn, the second Jupiter and on through to the seventh, the Moon. The last circuit symbolically confirmed the pilgrims as being true Muslims and their astronomical symbol became the Moon (the Moon was singled out in the seventh circuit of the Ka'aba). At the end of the seventh circling (and after having recited certain prescribed prayers at various points in their seven circlings), the Muslim pilgrims found themselves back at the place they started opposite the black stone and again facing north to where God was actually thought to have His residence in heaven. There was much mimicking by early Muslims of the Temple rituals performed in Jerusalem by the Jews as demanded in the Scriptures and in Jewish tradition. Muhammad kept the same themes in his ritualistic interpretations. This is important to know in viewing the architectural design of the Dome of the Rock and the ritual focus intended by Abd al-Malik.

The "Rock" at the Dome of the Rock Was of Christian Value, NOT Jewish or Muslim

The "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock is the most conspicuous natural feature within the whole of the Haram esh-Sharif. For anyone to build a magnificent shrine over it shows that the "Rock" must have had great significance. And it did. The first Christian pilgrim that has left us a record of his journey to Jerusalem was the Bordeaux Pilgrim who in 333 A.D. mentioned that the most significant building east of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (then being built) was the Roman Praetorium where Pilate sentenced Jesus. This structure had its walls centered directly within the Tyropoeon Valley. This was NOT the site of the Temple in the eyes of the Bordeaux Pilgrim. He had already described the Temple site (and several other buildings around it) a few paragraphs before. But only later (after concluding his account of the Temple and its associated buildings) did the Bordeaux Pilgrim mention the imposing structure to the east of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre with its walls within the valley which he called the Praetorium where Pilate judged Jesus (see John Wilkinson's excellent translation of the Bordeaux Pilgrim in his book Egeria's Travels, p.158). Clearly, the Pilgrim was describing the Haram esh-Sharif as being the Praetorium. He was looking mainly toward the southwest angle of the Haram and northward toward the spot where the "Wailing Wall" of the Jews is presently located. The Pilgrim said this "walled area" contained the residence of Pilate. It was the Roman Praetorium that also went by the name of "Fort Antonia." In Roman usage, the Praetorium was the headquarters of a military unit and could refer to the whole camp or to the commander's tent. There was associated with the military fort a prominent "Rock" The apostle John was well aware of its significance in Christian history. Within this walled enclosure of the Praetorium was the "Rock" called in John's Gospel (John 19:13) "the Pavement-Stone" (in Greek, lithostrotos and in Hebrew Gabbatha).

This particular "Rock" within the Praetorium area had a "Pavement" or flagstones around it. The "Rock" was associated with the Praetorium and was part of Fort Antonia, the permanent Roman Camp that was located in Jerusalem in the time of Pilate and Jesus. And what did Josephus say (he was the Jewish historian of the first century and an eyewitness to the early Praetorium of the Romans called Fort Antonia)? He stated that the central feature of Fort Antonia was a major rock. He said: "The tower of Antonia�was built upon [around] a rock fifty cubits high and on all sides precipitous�the rock was covered from its base upwards with smooth flagstones" (Jewish War, V.v,8 para.238). Before construction of the fortress, the "Rock" was 50 cubits high (75 feet), but Herod later built a platform around it (when it became the north/south center of the walled fortress) and this made it not as high and it became accessible for judicial purposes. That "Rock" around which Fort Antonia was built (and mentioned by Josephus) was the chief geographical feature of the site. It was near this "Rock" that Pilate had his residence at the time of Jesus' trial. Later Christians believed that some indentions in that "Rock" must have come from the footprints of Jesus as he stood before Pilate and God supposedly allowed his feet to sink into the "Rock." Though these indentions were not the actual footprints of Jesus (a great deal of Christian folklore became associated with the "Rock"), early Christians came to believe they were the literal outlines of Jesus' feet. It is easy to explain how this conclusion came to be associated with the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock.

The so-called footprints came into vogue when later Christians noticed in the New Testament that a "Judgment Seat" was placed by Pilate on the "Rock" (called in Greek a bematos). That word comes from the root word bema that literally means footprint, or by common usage a footstool where a king or a ruler in judgment would place his feet when he sat on a throne in order to sentence people in any official judicial event. Indeed, even the throne of God was reckoned in the Bible as a spot where God placed His feet below the Ark of the Covenant in the Temple when He sat or stood to make His divine judgments (Psalms 99:5; 132:7; Lamentations 2:1). Each military governor of the Romans carried his official bema or bematos with him in order to make his judgments on behalf of the emperor, and Julius Caesar carried one with him everywhere he went in order to render official judgments (see "Praetorium," Hasting's Bible Dictionary). Later Christians simply confused the literal meaning of bema [footprint] and the indentions they saw in the natural outcropping of rock became "Jesus' footprints." Though this was error, the reckoning became an indelible identifying mark associated with the "Rock" where Pilate made his judgment against Jesus. This "Rock" (called "the Pavement" by the apostle John) was well known in the time of Constantine. The records show that Helena, the mother of Constantine, ordered that a small Christian Church with the name "St.Cyrus and St.John" be built over that "Rock" (see Life of Constantine in Wilkinson's Jerusalem Pilgrims Before the Crusades, p. 204). This small church was later enlarged probably in the fifth century to become a major church in Jerusalem called "The Church of the Holy Wisdom." This church is described very well (and accurately) in a sixth century work written by the Piacenza Pilgrim. He said (with words in brackets mine):

"We also prayed at the Praetorium, where the Lord's case was heard: what is there now is the basilica of Saint Sophia [the Holy Wisdom Church], which is in front [north] of the Temple of Solomon [located] below the street [east and downslope] which runs down to the spring of Siloam outside of Solomon's porch [the eastern wall of Solomon's Temple]. In this basilica is the seat where Pilate sat to hear the Lord's case, and there is also the oblong stone [I emphasize this point about the "oblong stone" to help identify the spot] which used to be in the center of the Praetorium [the Praetorium tent was moveable]. The accused person whose case was being heard was made to mount this stone so that everyone could hear and see him. The Lord mounted it when he was heard by Pilate, and his footprints [italicized for emphasis] are still on it. He had a well-shaped foot, small and delicate."

This Church of the Holy Wisdom (which the Pilgrim had just described) was built over "the oblong stone" which the people thought had the footprints of Jesus embedded in it. Just as Josephus stated that the "Rock" was the most prominent part of Fort Antonia [the Praetorium area], so this "oblong stone" was the central feature of the Church of the Holy Wisdom (that was destroyed by the Persians and Jewish soldiers in 614 A.D.). This is the same "Rock" that is now under the Dome of the Rock in the Haram esh-Sharif. The fact that later Christians thought the footprints of Jesus were embedded in this "Rock," is a key for identification. There are historical references both Christian and Muslim that attest that the "Rock" over which the Dome of the Rock now stands was the same "Rock or Stone" that had the footprints of Jesus inlayed as foot-like depressions sunk into the "Rock." Indeed, even as late as the period of the Crusades we read that the court recorder of Saladin (the Muslim who reconquered Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187 A.D.) made mention that Jesus' footprints had been embedded in the "Rock" underneath the Dome of the Rock (see article "Saladin" in Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam). There are several other Muslim references to these footprints of Jesus in the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock that I have present in a more extended context in my new book "The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot." In fact, in the book I will show in a future article that those footprints of Jesus were sawed away from the "Rock" and placed in a location within the Haram esh-Sharif about 200 yards north of the Dome of the Rock. This later fact is a most interesting and important aspect of the story.

In short, there can be no doubt of the identification. The "Rock" of the Dome of the Rock (which is clearly oblong in shape) and the "oblong stone" within the Church of the Holy Wisdom were one and the same "Rock/Stone." Sophronius, the Archbishop of Jerusalem in the time of Omar when the Muslims first conquered Jerusalem, called the Church of the Holy Wisdom (when it was yet standing before its destruction in 614 A.D.) as "the House and the Stone" (Sophronius, Antacroeontica as translated by John Wilkinson in Jerusalem Pilgrims Before the Crusades, p.91). This fact shows that Sophronius saw great significance in the "Rock/ Stone." That "Rock" that later became the spot for the Dome of the Rock to Sophronius was the very stone called "the Pavement" mentioned in John 19:13 (rendered in Greek as the Lithostrotos, and in Hebrew Gabbatha).

Why the Dome of the Rock Was Built by Abd al-Malik in 692 A.D.

During the first hundred years of Muslim rule in Jerusalem (since more than 90% of the population was Christian) was one of conciliation and ecumenism between Muslims and Christians and between Muslims and Jews. This does not mean that the Muslims wanted to embrace some of the teachings of Christianity. The Muslims abhorred what they believed to be outright idolatry among Christians with their statues, pictures and pagan practices within the Christian community, but they still thought in this early period that they could wean Christians away from their religious beliefs unto the new Islam that God had now revealed to the world by Muhammad. This was the central reason why Abd al-Malik first devised and designed the building called the Dome of the Rock to be built over the Christian spot where once the Church of the Holy Wisdom had stood. His attempt was ecumenical in its spiritual intent, but still to show the superiority of Islam over what Abd al-Malik believed to be a decadent type of Christianity. The fact is, the Dome of the Rock was built exclusively to vie with (and to appeal to) Christians in Jerusalem to accept the new truth of Islam which was (in the Muslim view) a major advance in proper religious interpretation that the "Peoples of the Book" (the Christians and Jews) ought to have enough sense to accept. And though Jews were also accounted as being "People of the Book," the construction of the Dome of the Rock was NOT intended in any manner to influence Jews. After all, Jews would NOT have reckoned as important a "Rock" that was exclusively a Christian religious site because it was identified with "the Pavement" recorded in the Gospel of John (John 19:13). In a word, Abd al-Malik and the early Muslims felt they could effectively (in an intellectual and philosophical way) convince Christians that Islam was correct by constructing the Dome of the Rock and to include within it a message from Islam that would glorify Muslim theology.

So, Abd al-Malik set out in 692 A.D. to woo the Christians to Islam. What he did was to rebuild in the exact spot and in the precise form "The Church of the Holy Wisdom" that had been destroyed by the Persians and Jews in 614 A.D. (and he desired it to have as much architectural grandeur as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre). He then built what looked like a grand Byzantine "Church" directly over the very "Rock" that Christians believed contained the footprints of Jesus. Abd al-Malik did not design the Dome of the Rock as a Muslim type of building. He wanted it to appear as a rebuilt Church of the Holy Wisdom (the reason for this I will explain in my new book on the Temples). The Muslim Caliph designed the building to be like a "Church," but one that contained the new and advanced teaching of Islam. Within this new (or renewed) "Church," Abd al-Malik placed two inscriptions in Arabic. One was to Muslims in general (the outer inscription), and the other was exclusively for Christians (the inner inscription next to the "Rock" itself). That inner inscription specifically mentions Jesus and the supposed errors of some Christian doctrines. Abd al-Malik was appealing exclusively to Christians by emphasizing this Christian holy spot through Muslim eyes, NOT to Jews who did not yet accept Jesus as the Messiah as did Muslims and Christians. And in attempting to wean the Christians from their former beliefs unto the new Islam, Abd al-Malik used every architectural artifice and symbolic nuance he knew in a brilliant maneuver to woo the Christians of Jerusalem to accept Islam in a non-offensive way. He did so with a deliberate and steadfast allegiance to Muhammad that made Islam the dominant religion for all mankind, including those who then accepted Christianity.

One must carefully notice every architectural device used by Abd al-Malik to see what his intentions were and they must be minutely observed with utmost precision to the dotting of an "I" to the crossing of a "T." Every detail of the architecture that the Caliph designed was meant to systematically lead Christians (NOT Jews, in this case) to the advanced teachings of Islam as he believed them to be. And what a master he was in his endeavor! Though he built the Dome of the Rock as a facsimile of the Church of the Holy Wisdom (there was NOT the slightest intention on the part of Abd al-Malik to give heed to ANY JEWISH PERSON OR EDIFICE WHATEVER in the architectural design of the Dome of the Rock), he changed the entrance to the octagonal building from its original design with its entrance on the west. Abd al-Malik deliberately altered the entrance to Dome of the Rock to be from the south. This is most UN-Muslim! The ideal for those north of Mecca is (like the Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem) to enter from the north and pray toward the qibla (the direction to Mecca) in the south. Not so the Dome of the Rock! Abd al-Malik designed it to be entered from the south with one's back to Mecca (at the start of the liturgical theme)! Why do we know this? Because the two inscriptions in Arabic (containing vital information from cardinal verses in the Koran and also a religious commentary by Abd al-Malik himself as the successor of Muhammad) are a direct appeal to Muslims in general (the outer inscription) and then to Christians exclusively (the inner inscription that is written closer to the "Rock"). A significant feature of the inner inscription is the fact that it can only be read with one's back to the "Rock." This was intended to give a negative emotional reaction to the reader of the inscription that the architecture was designed to evoke. The inner inscription was not designed to be read by Jews who did not believe in Jesus in the first place (like the Muslims and Christians). The writings on the cornice were to give definite and decisive positive and negative psychological impressions through liturgical and ritualistic themes that Abd al-Malik designed into the architecture. Again (and it is important to note) the Caliph did NOT address any Jews nor did he show the slightest interest in Jewish matters or religious beliefs when he designed the Dome of the Rock. He built the Dome of the Rock to appeal strictly to Christians, NOT Jews! [To read what the two inscriptions state in English, read the excellent translations with outstanding pictures and explanatory text in Professor Oleg Grabar's book titled The Shape of the Holy.]

A Historical Review of What Happened Surrounding the Site of the "Rock."

In 638 A.D., when Omar (the Second Caliph) went to Jerusalem, he asked Sophronius the archbishop to show him where King David had prayed before the building of the Temple. Omar said he wished to pray in the same spot. Sophronius showed him, first, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which Omar rejected. Then Sophronius took the Caliph to the traditional Zion on the southwest hill. Omar rejected that spot too. Then, when Omar stated that he wished to build a shrine at the place where David prayed, Sophronius then took him to the place over and near the Gihon Spring where the Jews had attempted to rebuild the Temple in the time of Constantine (as permitted in the Edict of Milan in 313 A.D. and with construction continuing to 325 A.D.) and also in the time of Julian the Apostate (362 A.D.). At that former Temple site over the Gihon Spring, Omar was impressed. He dug through the filth and found a stone that he removed and took it through the South Gate of the Haram esh-Sharif. There he placed it near the qibla [the site toward which Muslim pray as they bow toward Mecca] on the elevated platform directly abutting the southern wall. He called the place the Al Aqsa (and a Mosque was soon built there). But one of Omar's generals named Ka'ab (a recent convert from Judaism who had extensive Christian indoctrination) found the place of the "Rock" where the former Church of the Holy Wisdom once stood. He told Omar that it would be better to place the qibla NORTH of this "Rock" and NOT down at the southern end of the Haram. Omar rejected this suggestion of Ka'ab and chided the general for making such a suggestion. That would have given much prestige to that "Rock" in the north, and Omar steadfastly refused. He turned his back on that "Rock" where the Christian church once stood, and went back south to the qibla of the Al Aqsa area. The truth is, Omar (in his role as the Second Caliph and the divine successor of Muhammad in Muslim theology) totally rejected that northern "Rock." And later, Abd al-Malik wanted to show a further rejection by building the Dome over that northern "Rock" some fifty years afterwards.

Let me explain how this rejection is designed into the Dome. The original entrance designed by Abd al-Malik was from the southern most octant of the octagonal design. Once a person entered the Dome, he was directed to read the start of the first inscription that was located at the top of the cornice on the far right side of the southern octant. Since Arabic (like Hebrew) is written from right to left, the first inscription contained no message for Christians and it was meant for Muslims in general. To read the whole inscription one must start with one's back to Mecca (this is important to note), but then circle around the whole of the Dome clockwise (just the opposite from what Muslims do in circling the Ka'aba at Mecca) until one comes to the exact spot where one commenced his reading (when one returns to this southern point the person can conveniently turn his back to the "Rock" and pray directly toward Mecca in the south). The design of the outer message is to circle the "Rock" in the wrong direction (which gives a negative impression to any early Muslim, Jew or Christian). But the complete encirclement requires one to return to the south once again and the person is forced to face Mecca when one leaves the Dome with one's back to the "Rock" as Omar insisted one must do (and Abd al-Malik designed this symbolic stance - with one's back to the "Rock" - into the liturgy associated with the architecture of the Dome of the Rock).

The inner inscription is different. One must go further into the Dome to the other side of the same cornice and look upward at the same southern octant, but to its far-left side if one is facing the "Rock" (indeed, one must look at its far left side only when facing the "Rock" itself, but inside the inner area of the Dome one must look southerly and also upwards at the start of the inscription which will be seen on one's upper right side - this requires a person to have his back to the "Rock" and looking toward Mecca). To read the inner inscription one must crane the neck upward to see the start of the inscription that is circling and facing the "Rock." One then begins to read the inscription in Arabic devoted strictly to Christians (NOT to Jews) because the whole emphasis of the message is about the importance of Jesus in Muslim theology. One must read this inscription which completely encircles the Dome (like the outer one in the opposite direction), but one must do so in a counterclockwise manner as one does at Mecca (a positive sign) but this time with one's back to the "Rock" (another positive sign from a Muslim point of view, and a negative one as Christians would view it).

Now note this important point. All the time a Christian is reading the teaching from Abd al-Malik in the inner inscription, he has to do so with his back deliberately turned away from the "Rock" and with his head craned upward in the most uncomfortable position that one can imagine. The whole anatomical awkwardness forced upon the human observer is a deliberate attempt to show disdain for the symbolic meaning that Christians had placed on the "Rock." The original symbolism for Christians was different. The Christian entered the Domed Church from the west and looked eastward toward the Mount of Olives. Once the circuit of the "Rock" was made, the Christian could again look through the "Rock" eastward toward Olivet in symbolic anticipation for the Second Advent (Christ is to come back from the east - as the sun in its circuit of the earth).

However, Abd al-Malik designed the Dome of the Rock to be entered from the southern octant. But even if a Christian entered from the south (as designed by Abd al-Malik), though his circuit around the "Rock" would be all negative to Christianity because his or her back would always be away from the "Rock" (while reading the inner inscription), the Christian upon completing the circuit could simply refuse to face Mecca when his circuit ended in the south. He could then turn directly northward and pray through the "Rock" (which symbolized the rule of Christ in his or her life) and direct his ultimate attention to the north quarter of the sky where all people knew God the Father had His residence. If Abd al-Malik saw a Christian do this after the circuit deposited the person in the south, then Abd al-Malik knew that the person would never be a Muslim and the Christian would be accepted as a "Person of the Book" (the Holy Scriptures) but inferior to Muslims. Thus, the person would then pay the poll tax to the Muslims and carry on with his own beliefs.

Still, when one completed the circuit by reading either the outer or the inner inscription in order to exit the Dome of the Rock as intended by Abd al-Malik, the person is forced to face directly toward Mecca. But there is one other thing. The person is also facing directly toward the Al Aqsa Mosque established by Omar the Second Caliph, and directly through the former site of the Holy of Holies of Solomon's Temple (because the Muslims knew then where Solomon's Temple was formerly located over the Gihon Spring). The prayer of the Muslim would transverse Solomon's Temple and focus onward to the Ka'aba in Mecca. Every device imaginable was used by Abd al-Malik in his building of the Dome of the Rock to direct people (both Muslims and Christians) AWAY FROM any significance of the "Rock" (just as Omar had demanded when he was first in Jerusalem). This is because it was well known in the seventh century that the "Rock" was actually a Christian holy spot.

What is most important for us of modern times to realize is the fact that the site of the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock is purely and simply a Christian holy place (before the time of Omar and Abd al-Malik), and it did not become a Muslim holy site until many folklore traditions about the "Night Journey" of Muhammad began to be associated with the "Rock" from the eighth century on to the time of the Crusades. I explain in my book "The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot" how the many Muslim mythic accounts (which were outright fables and lies that even Muslim historians admit to be so) erroneously got attached to the "Rock" under the Dome of the Rock. As for the Jews, NO JEW showed any interest whatever in the "Rock" and the Dome of the Rock until the time of the First Crusade. This is a fact! For more information see further articles on this subject on our ASK Web Site.

So, the Dome of the Rock was built over a prime Christian holy place (where the Church of the Holy Wisdom was once situated). Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock with the intended purpose of getting Christians to forget the "Rock" on which Jesus was judged at the time of Pilate. Abd al-Malik wanted Christians to abandon the Christian significance to the "Rock" by having them turn their "backs" on it and he wanted Christians to convert to Islam and then to focus on the Ka'aba stone where Muslims supposed Abraham erected at Mecca in Arabia for the true worship of God. My book "The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot" provides more details to this important historical fact.

We have reached the topic of prayer. It has been related from the Prophet (s.a.w.), "Prayer is the buttress of religion. If it is accepted, by Allah, the Most High, every other good deed by the faithful is accepted. And if it is rejected, every other good deed is rejected".

Prayer is an audience with the Creator, convened at prescribed daily times. Allah has outlined the times at which prayers are said and the manner which they must be conducted. During this audience you be fully absorbed in the experience. You talk to Him and invoke His Mercy. You come out of this encounter with clear conscience and serene heart. It is quite natural that you may feel the presence of Allah while you say your prayer.

It is no wonder that Imam Ali (a.s.) used to remove the arrows embedded in his body in battle while fully engrossed in the spirit of worship, for it used to help him take his mind away from pain.

When Imam, Zainul Aabideen (a.s.) used to do wudhu his face would turn pale. And when members of his family asked why he looked so haggard, his reply was, "Don't you know in whose presence I am going to be?". When he started prayer, it sent shivers down his spine. And when asked why he was shivering, he replied, "I want to have audience with my Lord and implore Him. That is why I tremble".

The story of Imam al-Kadhim's (a.s.) worship is a model for all devout Muslims. When the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid ordered him to be imprisoned in his dungeons, the Imam passed most of his time in worship, giving thanks to Allah for answering his prayer and availing himself of that golden opportunity.

Above all, payer is a manifestation of inner feeling that we all belong to Allah, the Most High, who has overall control over everything. And when you utter the phrase, "Allahu Akbar" at the start of every prayer, all material things should become insignificant because you are in the presence of the Lord of the universe who controls every aspect of it. He is greater than everything. As you recite the Chapter of "al-Fatiha", you say, "You do we worship, and You do we ask for help". Thus, you rid yourself of dependency on any mortal.

With that exquisite feeling of submission to Him, you enrich your spirit five times a day. And if you want more spiritual upliftment, you may perform mustahab prayer.

* Does this mean there are two types of prayer - i.e. wajib and mustahab?

- Yes, that is true.

* I know the wajib prayers. They are the ones we say five times a day - subh, dhuhr, asr, maghrib, and isha.

- No, those are not the only wajib prayers. There are more:

1. Prayer for ayaat (signs, or natural occurrences). (Please refer to the Second Dialogue on Prayer).

2. Tawaf payer that pilgrims say during umra and hajj. (Please refer to the Dialogue on Hajj)

3. Prayer for the souls of the dead. (Please refer to the Dialogue on Death Related Matters).

4. Any compulsory prayer not said by the father who had passed away. [It is incumbent on his eldest son to say it on his behalf]. (Please refer to the Second Dialogue on Prayer).

5. Any prayer that becomes compulsory because of hire (ijarah), oath, votive offering, or any other reason.

However, the five daily prayers should have the following:

a. The time of prayer.

b. The Qiblah.

c. The Place where prayer is said.

d. The clothes of the person saying the prayer.

e. The taharah necessary to saying prayer.

It should be noted, though, that these five prerequisites should be present in other types of prayer, except for the time of prayer, as will be explained in detail later on, inshallah.

Now, I am going to discuss each of these points in detail.

* So, you'll start with the time of prayer.

- Yes:

1. For each of the five prayers there is an appointed time that must not be taken lightly. The time for Subh prayer is from the start of dawn till sunrise. The time for Dhuhr and Asr prayers is from zawal to sunset. The first portion is confined to Dhuhr prayer and the second to Asr prayer in as long as each of which takes.

* How would I know the time of zawal?

- It is the midway between sunrise and sunset.

The time of Maghrib and Isha starts from sunset and lasts till midnight. The first part is confined to Maghrib and the latter part to Isha in as long as each of which takes .

[You should not start Maghrib prayer until the dusk, appearing in the East, disappears from the sky].

* Could you explain what Eastern dusk is?

- It is a reddish colour that appears in the East, opposite the direction of sunset, that disappears once the whole disc of the sun descends below the horizon.

* How can I determine midnight that heralds the end of time for Isha prayer?

- It is the mid point between sunset and dawn.

* Suppose, come midnight and I had deliberately not said Maghrib and Isha, what should I do?

- You have to hasten to offer it before the onset of dawn with the niyyah of alqurbal mutlaqah (The intention must be made with a view to seeking closeness to Allah, i.e. without stating whether it is being said on time "ada'" or in lieu "qadha'").

When saying any prayer, it is important to observe the appointed time of each prayer before you set out to say it.

2. The Qiblah: You ought to set your face towards the qiblah, which is the place where the Holy Qa'ba, in Mekkah, is situated.

* Should I fail to determine the direction of the qiblah, after exhausting all means, what should I do?

- Set your face towards the direction you feel the qiblah could be in.

* If I was still undecided as to where would the qiblah be?

- Say your prayer, facing any direction you think the qiblah is in, on the basis of probability .

* Suppose I said prayer, facing a direction I thought was, approximately, the right one, then I found out I was wrong, what would happen?

If the deviation from the direction of the qiblah is less than 45 degrees to right or left, your prayer is in order. If, however, the degree of tilt was greater than that, or you said your prayer facing the opposite direction, and there was still time to repeat the prayer, you should do so. Should the time of prayer elapse, you need not repeat the prayer.

3. The place where prayer is said, [Be aware that the place where you say prayer should be ownerless, i.e. not usurped, because prayer shall not be in order in a place that is maghsoub].

Among what is considered maghsoub are possessions, such as property and furniture, that although taxable, yet khums tax on them was withheld. I shall discuss in some detail matters pertaining to khums in another session. I just want to remind you against complacency and indifference when it comes to paying religious dues.

* And if the property or land was not maghsoub but the prayer mat, for instance, was?

- Likewise, [performing prayer on such a mat would render prayer invalid].

The spot where you do prostration must be tahir not najis.

* Is the spot of prostration where you place your forehead?

- Precisely, such as the clay tablet (turba) and similar objects.

* What about the rest of the place, that is where you stand or sit, etc.?

- Taharah is not a prerequisite, provided that the source of najasah, if present, is not wet.

However, there are few more points concerning the place where you say your prayer:

a. It is not permissible, during prayer and otherwise, to turn your back on the graves of the Infallibles (a.s.), especially when the act entails insularity.

b. [Both the prayers of a man and a woman would not be in order, if they were very close to one another and standing side by side, or the woman was slightly ahead]; the distance between the two positions where they say prayer should not be less than ten yards, if there is no barrier, such as a wall, separating the two.

c. Prayer is mustahab at mosques, and the most honoured ones are the Grand Holy Mosque at Mekkah, and the mosque of the Prophet (s.a.w.) at Medinah. Prayer is also recommended at the holy shrines of the Infallibles (a.s.).

d. It is strongly recommended that women choose the most secure (sitr) place, even within the boundaries of their own home.

5. There are certain conditions that should be met when putting clothes on for prayer:

a. The clothes must be tahir and [not maghsoub]. However, what is worn during prayer should have been acquired lawfully. This, though, only applies to that which covers the private parts. Also, we should take into consideration that there is a difference between what is acceptable for a man to cover himself with and a woman. For example, in a man's case, garments, such as a pair of knee-length shorts, would suffice. Whereas for a woman, wearing such a garment would not do, for she is required to cover her body during prayer.

b. It should not be a part of an animal, such as the skin of an unslaughtered animal even if it is not sufficient by itself to cover one's private parts].

* Would prayer be valid if the person who said it was wearing a leather belt, bought from a Muslim dealer or made in an Islamic country, albeit there was no information about the slaughtering of the animal from whose hide the belt was made?

- Yes, the prayer is in order.

* What about a leather belt acquired from non-Muslims or made in non-Muslim countries?

- The prayer shall be in order, [unless you knew that the hide used was that of an unslaughtered animal].

* If I was not sure as to the nature of the material of the belt, whether real or synthetic?

- Generally speaking, prayer can be said with such a belt on.

c. Products made from carnivorous animals are not allowed to be worn during prayer, even if they were of these which could cover the private parts. [And other products made from animals, whose meat is not permissible to consume].

d. Pure silk garments must not be worn by men during prayer. As for women, wearing silk clothes is allowed.

e. Pure, or adulterated, gold jewellery is not allowed for men. However, there is no harm in wearing fake jewellery.

* Even if it was a wedding ring?

- Yes, the prayer will not be in order with such a ring worn. Not only this, it is forbidden for men to wear gold at all time.

* What about gold caps on teeth and gold pocket watches?

- These are permissible and the prayer said with these things on is in order.

* Suppose I did not know that my ring was made of gold, or I knew but forgot to take it off before I said prayer. Would my prayer still be valid?

- Yes, the prayer is in order.

* And women?

- They are allowed to wear gold at all time, including prayer time.

I still have two more things on the clothes worn during prayer. It is obligatory to cover the private parts, i.e. the penis, testicles, and posterior.

Women have to cover their entire body including hair, but excluding the face, hands - to the wrists, and feet - to the ankles during prayer. They should do this even when they are alone.

These are the preliminary steps of prayer. Prayer itself comprises a number of parts and duties. They are, niyyah, takbiratul ihram, standing, recitation of some chapters of the Holy Qur'an, dhikr (remembrance), ruku', sujood (prostration), tashahhud, tasleem. The order, as well as continuance, of all these series of acts and utterances should be paramount, as you shall find out later on.

* Why didn't you start with adhan and iqamah (a shortened form of adhan, heralding the inauguration of prayer)?

- Before I answer your question, I should say that some of these acts and utterances are called the fundamental parts; they are niyyah, takbiratul ihram, iqamah, ruku' and sujood. Thus, they are set aside from the other parts of prayer in that if any of these five fundamental parts is not properly executed or missed out either deliberately or inadvertently, the prayer is rendered invalid.

And now to answer your question, I have this to say: Reciting adhan and iqamah in daily prayers is a strongly mustahab act. So, you shall be rewarded if you stick to reciting them prior to your daily prayer.

* What should I say for adhan?

- You can say the following:

Allahu Akbar (God is Great) - four times and each of the following phrases twice:

Ashhadu Alla Illaha Illal Lah (I bear witness that there is no god but Allah).

Ashhadu Anna Mohammadar Rasoulul Lah (I bear witness that Mohammad is the Messenger of Allah).

Hayya Alas Salah (Hasten to prayer)

Hayya Alal Falah (Hasten to success)

Hayya Ala Khairil Amal (Hasten to the best of good deeds)

Allahu Akar

La Illaha Illal Lah (There is no god but Allah)

* And Iqamah?

- You should say each of the following phrases twice:

Allahu Akbar

Ashhadu Alla Illaha Illal Lah

Ashhadu Anna Mohammadar Rasoulul Lah

Hayya Alas Salah

Hayya Alal Falah

Hayya Ala Khairil Amal

Qad Qametis Salah (prayer is being offered)

Allahu Akbar

And

La Illaha Illal Lah (once)

* What about bearing witness to the vicegerency of Imam Ali (a.s.)?

- It is mustahab, i.e. it is not an integral part of either adhan or iqamah.

* So, the first part of prayer is niyyah.

- Yes.

* What is niyyah?

- It is your intention to offer prayer, that is you seek to be close to Allah and gain His favour and reward by way of submission.

* Could you explain to me what you mean by submission?

- It is the inner spiritual feeling that goes hand in hand with all kinds of acts of worship; this can be summed up as feeling of humility before the Creator.

* Is there a particular utterance?

- No, it is a mind set. That is why it does not have a particular utterance; its seat is the heart. If, however, you do not set your mind to performing prayer seeking nearness and submission to Allah in those utterances and movements, your prayer shall be rendered null and void (batil).

The second fundamental part of prayer is takbiratul Ihram.

* What is takberatul Ihram?

- In a still standing posture, facing the qiblah, you say: Allahu Akbar. You should say it in Arabic, stressing the sound of (hamza) in the word (Akbar). You should also clearly utter the rest of the letters of this word and the others. It is preferable, though, to pause between takbiratul Ihram and the start of the recitation of the Chapter of Al-Fatiha (Suratul Fatiha).

* You said I must say takiratul ihram while standing. How should I go about saying prayer, if I was unable to stand unaided due to illness, for example?

- You can say your prayer in a sitting position; if not, you can say it lying on your right or left hand side, with your face towards the qiblah. [Whenever possible, lying on the right hand side must be given precedence over the left hand side].

* If I was not in a position to do either?

- You could offer prayer while lying on your back with your legs pointing to the qiblah.

* Suppose I could only manage takbiratul ihram in a standing position.

- Yes, you could utter the phrase of takiratul ihram from a standing position and perform the rest of your prayer from a sitting one in any way possible.

The third fundamental part of prayer is the recitation.

After takbiratul ihram, you recite Surat (Chapter) of al-Fatiha [and another full chapter after it]. The recitation must be carried out correctly. You must also not forget to recite the Basmalah (an acronym for Bismillahir Rahman ar Rahim: In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful) at the beginning of every chapter, except for Chapter of Tawbah.

* If I have not sufficient time to recite the second chapter?

- You could leave it out. You could do so, should you be ill and cannot recite the second chapter. The same goes for situations of fearfulness or when you are in a hurry.

* In what manner should I recite the two chapters?

- [Men have to recite them in such a manner that recitation is audible during Subh, Maghrib and Isha prayers. As for reciting the two chapters during Dhuhr and Asr, these should be done in an inaudible voice].

* What about women?

- They are not required to recite the two chapters audibly. [They should, though, adhere to reciting inaudibly during Dhur and Asr prayers].

* Suppose I was ignorant of the rule on reciting audibly or inaudibly, or I made a mistake in the manner of reciting, i.e. I got mixed up, would my prayer still be valid?

- You need not worry; your prayer should be in order.

* Now I know what I should recite during the first and second raka'. What should I read during the third and fourth raka'?

- You have the choice of either reciting the Chapter of al-Fatiha only, or utter the tasbihat (or dhikr) [inaudibly in both the cases] except the Basmalah where you can recite it in an audible voice.

* If I choose to read the tasbihat, what should I say?

- It suffices to say, in a lowered voice, "Subhanallah, wal Hamdu Lillah, wala Illaha Illal Lah, Wallahu Akbar": Glory be God, and Praise be to God; there is no god but God; God is the Greatest. These phrases could be said either once or three times, whichever you prefer.

* Are there any other requirements for the recitation?

- Yes, you must observe the correct pronunciation of the Arabic words, both individually and within the context of other words; when you stop on a word, you must always pronounce it with an ending tone (sukoon), i.e. you should ignore the accent on the last letter, be it fatha, kasrah, dhamma, etc. Conversely, you must pronounce the words with their full harakat (diacritical marks, such as shaddah, maddah, tanween, hamzatul wasl or hamzatul qat', appearing above the characters or below them that denote and aid the proper pronunciation of the words, both independently and in relation to other words in the sentence), usually found in the print of the Holy Qur'an.

In a word, you should master the rules of correct recitation, in the same way, you are required to do when reciting the verses of the Holy Qur'an, such as idgham (amalgamation or doubling of certain letters - after noon sakinah), qalqalah (resonating the sound of such letters as, qaf, taa', baa', jeem, daal, especially when you are stopping on them). Some of these can be found at the end of the words of (Ahad, Assamad, Yelid, Youled in Chapter of al-Ikhlas).

* Could you give me an example of hamzatul wasl and hamzatul qat'?

- Words in Chapter al-Fatiha, such as (Allah, Arrahman, Ihdina) start with hamzatul wasl which is not accentuated when these words are used in a context of the sentence, i.e. the way they are pronounced is determined by the pronunciation of words immediately before them. Thus, they are more or less silent. As for hamzatul qat', it is the one that should be pronounced very clearly. The way this type of hamza is pronounced is not determined by its proximity to other words. Examples of such a hamza are found in the words of (Iyyaka and An'amta) in the same Chapter.

And if I may add, to ensure that your recitation and other utterances during prayer are perfect, you should seek the help of those who have mastered prayer to enlighten you. This may sound somewhat stringent; yet you must endeavour to acquire the ability to guarantee that your prayer is correct.

The fourth fundamental is qiyaam (standing upright).

Although this is self explanatory, yet it is the only part or unit of prayer that carries a double message. It could be a rukn as in the case of uttering takbiratul ihram and the qiyaam immediately before ruku. Thus, it qualifies for the characteristics of and is governed by the rules of any other rukn. Or it could be a compulsory act (wajibat), not a rukn, such as the standing while reciting the two chapters or tasbihat, or standing up from a bowing position. Rules of wajibat should, therefore, apply.

The fifth fundamental is ruku.

* How should I do ruku?

- You bend your body, placing the palms of your hands on your knees, and saying (Subhana Rabiyal Adheemi wa Bihamdih: Glory and praise be to my Lord) once, or you say either (Subhanal Lah: Glory be to God), or (Allahu Akbar: God is Great), or (Alhamdu Lillah: Praise be to God) three times each.

You should then stand upright, saying as you do the movement (Sami'llahu Limen Hamidah: May God accept the words of those who praise Him), after which you prostrate.

The sixth fundamental is sujood.

You must do two prostrations (sujoods) in each ruku.

* How should I do sujood?

- Put your forehead, the palms of the hands, the knees and toes on the floor, forming an angle out of the torso and thighs. It should be noted, though, that you must place your forehead on the earth or what is grown in it, except that which is edible or can be worn.

* Could you give me an example of what cannot be used for sujood because it is of that which could be consumed or worn?

- Vegetables and fruits cannot be used for sujood, nor can cotton and flax.

* So, what are the other things that are permissible to use for sujood?

- You may use earth, sand, stone, shingle, wood, or inedible leaves. You may choose to do prostration on paper made of pulp, cotton, flax, or chaff.

You should not use grains such as wheat and barley for sujood, nor wool, tar, glass, and crystal. The best object you can perform sujood on is the earth taken from land of Karbala, Iraq where Imam Hussain (a.s.) is buried.

* Suppose I was unable to conduct sujood on any permissible object or matter because it was either unavailable or out of fear for myself?

- In the event of non-availability of any of the permissible things for sujood, you may use tar or bitumen. If not, you may prostrate on anything you deem possible, such as the garment you are wearing or your hand. If your well-being was threatened, you may act according to that which would be conducive to preserving yourself.

Moreover, do not forget to observe the requirement of symmetry and level of the places where you rest your forehead, your knees, and the toes of both feet, i.e. none should be higher than the other by the depth of a fist, i.e. with four folded fingers (about ten cm.). [Nor should the level of the spots where you stand and prostrate be].

* Having taken this posture, what should I do next?

- You should say (Subhana Rabiyal Al 'Ala wa Bihamdih: Glory and Praise be to my Lord, the Most High) once, or (Subhanal Allah), or (Allahu Akbar), or (Alhamdu Lillah) three times. Then, lift your forehead and sit down still and composed, putting the legs under the buttocks, crossing the right foot over the left one, and saying (Allahu Akbar). You should do the second sujood in exactly the same way you did the first.

* If I was unable to bend for sujood properly due to sickness, for example, what should I do?

- Try to bow as far as you can, placing the object of sujood on a raised place, provided that you position all other parts of your body during the posture of sujood on their respective spots.

* And if I was not able to do so?

- You may nod with your head to the place of sujood. Should you not be able to do so, you may use your eyes as a substitute; close them to denote performing sujood and open them to express the lifting of the forehead from the place of sujood.

The seventh fundamental part of prayer is tashahhud.

Tashahhud is compulsory to say after the second sujood of the second ruku of every prayer and after the last ruku of maghrib, dhuhr, asr and Isha prayers

* How should I go about uttering it?

- Say (Ashhadu Alla Illaha Illal Lah, Wahdahu La Sharika Lah, Wa Ashhadu Anna Mohammadan Abduhu Wa Rasuluh. Allahumma Salli Ala Mohammadiw Aali Mohammad: I bear witness that there is no god but God, and that Mohammad is His servant and messenger; May peace be with Mohammad and his Pure Progeny). It is noteworthy, however, that you sit still and that your reading should be continuous.

The eighth fundamental is tasleem.

Saying tasleem is mandatory in the last ruku of every prayer. It is said immediately after tashahhud, while you are still in your sitting position.

* What should I say?

- The bare minimum is to say (Assalamu Alaikum: May peace be with you). It is highly recommended, though, that you add (Wa Rahmatul Lahi wa Barakatuh: and God's mercy and blessings), (Assalmu Alaika Ayyuhan Nabiyu wa Rahmatul Lahi wa Barakatuh: May peace, mercy of the Almighty and His blessings be with you, Oh Prophet), and (Assalamu Alaina wa Ala Ibadil Lahis Saliheen: May peace be with us and the good among Allah's servants. Assalamu Alaikum wa Rahmatul Lahi wa Barakatuh:May peace, mercy, and blessings of the Almighty be with you).

* Is there any reason why you did not mention qunoot (the raising of both hands for supplication in prayer)?

- Qunoot is mustahab once in every prescribed prayer and other voluntary ones [except Shefa' prayer]. If you wish, you can say it, with your both hands raised in supplication, after you have finished reciting the second surah of the second ruku, i.e. immediately before bowing.

* Is there any particular supplication I can say in qunoot?

- No, there is not. However, you could recite a verse from the Holy Qur'an, invoking your Lord; you may ask Him for anything.

* Now that you have explained to me how to say prayer, I would like to ask you if there are any actions or otherwise that invalidate prayer?

- Yes, there are:

1. When prayer is stripped of any of its fundamental units, such as niyyah, takbiratul ihram, ruku, and sujood, it can no longer be valid.

2. Whatever spoils ablution, such as breaking wind, is bound to nullify prayer, [even if it happens, unintentionally or out of necessity, after the last sujood].

3. The head or the torso should not be turned away fully from the qiblah.

* And if the turn is slight so much so that it would not spoil the actual facing of the qiblah?

- This does not invalidate prayer, although it is maqrouh.

4. Deliberate laughing nullifies prayer.

5. [Deliberate weeping or crying for worldly matters invalidates prayer]. Weeping for any matter relating to the Hereafter is in order.

6. Intentional speech, albeit pronouncing a single letter, other than utterances pertaining to prayer itself, renders prayer invalid. The only exception here is the response to a salutation, which is compulsory, by repeating that salutation.

7. Doing anything that spoils the movements or utterances of prayer, such as rocking or swaying, invalidates prayer.

8. Eating or drinking during prayer is not allowed, even if this does not spoil the acts and utterances of prayer.

9. [Deliberate crossing of one's hands, over the abdomen, while standing in prayer, in situations other than taqiyyah (dissimulation about one's religious beliefs in order to protect oneself, family or property from harm)].

10. Deliberate utterance of the word "Amen", after the imam has finished reciting "Al-Fatiha" [or the person who is praying alone says it after he has recited it], if there was no case for taqiyyah.

I should also, explain to you another important aspect concerning prayer, i.e. doubt about the proper execution of its acts and/or utterances.

* Does doubt render prayer invalid?

- It is not always the case. Some doubts do invalidate prayer. Others can be rectified and the third category can be ignored.

However, I should outline to you general principles you may observe, should you harbour any doubt about the proper execution of prayer.

1. Whenever you suspect the validity of any prayer after you have finished it, you need not worry; the prayer shall be in order.

* Could you give me an example?

- Suppose, you have just finished performing subh prayer. Immediately afterwards, you became suspicious whether you have done two ruku or more. In such a case, you should deem the prayer valid.

2. Whoever doubted the validity of any part of the prayer after he had finished it, they should deem that part valid and the whole prayer too.

* For example?

- If you grew doubtful about the correctness of your recitation, ruku, or sujood after you had performed them, you need not pay attention, and should deem the prayer in order.

3. Whenever you suspect that any part of prayer was not carried out properly, after you have entered into a subsequent part, you should deem the previous one in order, and the prayer shall therefore stand.

* I'd very much appreciate it, if you could give me an example.

- Suppose you were reciting the second chapter in a given ruku and the doubt crept into your mind that maybe you did not recite the first one, or forgot to recite it completely. In this case, you should deem the recitation of the chapter done. Similarly, if you were on going to bow, you should carry on with what you were about to do. Accordingly, your prayer shall be in order.

4. Whoever has a habit of doubting the correctness of the prayer, need not pay attention to such suspicion. The prayer shall, therefore, be in order.

* For example?

- Say, when you perform subh prayer, you frequently get mixed up as to the number of ruku you have done. You need not act on this suspicion and therefore render your prayer in order. Or suppose you have a habit of mistaking the number of sujood, e.g. whether you did one sujood or two. You should assume that prayer is in order.

* How can one reach a conclusion that they are prone to unusual level of doubt?

- He who has made a habit of being doubtful knows that shortcoming. It suffices to say that the frequency of their doubt is more than what is normally expected of the average person. For instance, they may doubt that they did something wrong in one out of every three prayers they had performed.

5. When you are unsure how many ruku you have done in subh, maghrib, or between the first and second ruku of every four-rak'a prayer, to the extent that you can not decide the number of ruku either way, the prayer shall be invalid.

* Could you give me an example?

- Say, you were praying Subh, and you became doubtful as to whether it was the first ruku you were in or the second. After a short pondering, you should make up your mind as to which ruku you were in. If this does not materialize either way, i.e. the first or second ruku, you must assume that your prayer is null.

* If I had a strong inkling that it was, the first ruku for example?

- In this case, you should act on that probability and carry on your prayer by doing the second ruku; your prayer should, accordingly, be valid.

* And what about the possibility of growing doubtful between the third and fourth ruku of a four-rak'a prayer?

- Should you make up your mind as to the number of ruku, you should act accordingly and do the remaining ruku.

* If I remain undecided?

- This needs discussing in some detail as each case has its own ruling. Here, though, are some of these situations:

1. If the doubt arises as to whether the ruku was the third or the fourth, no matter at what stage the doubt took place, you should assume that it is the fourth. You should, therefore, carry on with the prayer and after you have finished it, you either do two ruku from a sitting position or one ruku from a standing position. This is called salatul ihtiyat (precautionary prayer).

2. If the doubt arises as to whether the ruku was the fourth or the fifth, after having placed your forehead on the sujood spot for the second sujood, albeit before starting the utterance, you should assume that it is the fourth ruku. You should, therefore, carry on with your prayer; after you have finished it, you should perform sajdatay-as-sahu (two compensatory prostrations in lieu of any commision or omission in prayer due to forgetfulness).

3. If the doubt arises as to whether the ruku was the first or the second, at the time of executing the second sujood, you should assume that it is the third ruku. You should, therefore, carry on with your prayer, doing the fourth ruku. Once you finish prayer, you should perform salatul ihtiyat [in this case, it should be one ruku from a standing position].

* How should I go about salatul ihtiyat?

- Immediately after you have finished the prescribed prayer, you should begin salatul ihtiyat. That is, without any turning with your body to either side. In short, you should refrain from any action or saying which could invalidate prayer.

The way to say salatul ihtiyat is by starting with takbiratul ihram, then recitation of the Chapter of al-Fatiha [in a lowered voice]. There shall be no need to recite a second chapter. The subsequent movements and utterances would be bowing for ruku, sujood, tashahhud, and tasleem. That is, if the choice was for salatul ihtiyat to be said from a standing position. If it was for it to be said from a sitting position, there must be a second ruku before you do tashahhud and tasleem.

* What about sajdatay-as-sahu?

- After you do niyyah, immediately after you have finished prayer, it is preferable you do takbiratul ihram too. You should, then, do sujood. And as you are in a prostrating position, you should say (Bismillahi wa Billah. Assalamu Alaika Ayyuhan Nabiyu wa Rahmatul Lahi wa Barakatuh: In the name of God. May peace and blessings be with you, Oh Prophet). You should raise your head, go to a crouching position, and do a second sujood in exactly the same way. After you have finished the second sujood, you should do tashahhud and tasleem.

It should be noted, however, that sujood-as-sahu is a means of making up for other lapses that could happen during prayer. These are:

a. [When you inadvertantly speak, while you are praying].

b. [When you inadvertently utter any sentence of tasleem prematurely, i.e. while the prayer is still in progress].

c. Should you forget to say tashahhud, it is preferable that you say it first before you do sajdatay-as-sahu.

d. [If, after you have finished your prayer, doubt arises about omitting any act or utterance, or unnecessarily comissioning something, you should perform sajdatay-as-sahu]. It is also advisable that you perform sajdatay-as-sahu, if you have forgotten one of any two sujoods in your prayer. That is, after you do the sujood in lieu. You can also resort to doing sajdatay-as-sahu, if you have suspected that you were in a standing position instead of a sitting one. To sum up, it is advisable that you perform sajdatay-as-sahu if you realized that you either omitted and/or comitted any deed or saying during prayer.

e. You can perform sajdatay-as-sahu as many times as need be.

* Now that you have explained to me how prayer should be conducted and what to do when one realizes that they have made a mistake or an oversight during prayer, I'd appreciate it, if you could demonstrate to me how you say, for example, isha prayer. (My aim was to observe him while he was saying it). He agreed. The following is a description of what he did:

He first performed ablution (wudhu). After reciting adhan and iqamah, he set his face towards the qiblah, raised both his hands and put them close to his ears and, in a raised voice, uttered (Allahu Akbar).

He then started reciting the Chapter of al-Fatiha and followed it by the Chapter of al-Ikhlas. Immediately after he finished reciting the second chapter, he bowed, by placing both his hands on his knees, and said while in that posture (Subhana rabiyal adheemi wa bihamdih), and as he was going back to an upright position, he said (Sami'allahu limen hamidah: May God accept the words of that who chants His praise). From the standing position, he went down for prostration. After he placed his forehead on the sujood spot, he said (Subhan rabiyal 'ala wa bihamdih). Upon raising his head, he went back to a sitting position and said (Astaghfirul lahi wa atoobu ilaih: I seek forgiveness from God and declare my repentance in His presence). No sooner had he uttered these words, he went for a second sujood, after which he went back to a sitting position, uttering the same phrase while he was sitting. Thereafter, he stood upright again.

When he stood upright for the second time, he repeated the recitation of the two chapters, and before bowing, he raised both his hands for qunoot and recited (Rabij'alni muqeemas salati wa min thurayyati, rabbana wa taqabbal du'a. Rabanagh fir lee wa liwalidaya wa lilmu'mineen yawma yaqumul hisaab: My Lord! make me, and my offspring, keep up prayer, O our Lord! and accept my prayer. O our Lord! grant me protection, my parents, and the believers on the day when the reckoning shall come to pass).

On completing the supplication, he went for the bowing position for the second time now, repeated the same utterances while bowing (ruku). On raising his head, the two sujoods then followed in exactly the same way in the first ruku. As soon as he completed the second sujood, and in a sitting position, with his hands resting on his thighs, he pronounced tashahhud by saying (Ashhadu alla illaha illal lah, wahdahu la shareeka lah, wa ashhadu anna Mohamman abduhu wa rasuluh. Allahumma salli ala Mohammadiu wa aali Mohammad: I bear witness that there is no god but God, and that Mohammad is His servant and messenger. May God's peace be with Mohammad and his Pure Progeny).

My father then stood up for the third ruku. In his upright and still position, and in a lowered voice, he recited (Subhanal lahi, wal hamdu lillahi, wala illaha illal lahu, wal lahu akbar: Glory be to God, praise be to God, there is no god but God, and Allah is great); he recited these phrases three times. He then did ruku and sujood, and stood up for the fourth ruku, which he did in exactly the same way as the third one.

On going back to the sitting position after he performed the second sujood, he uttered tashahhud and tasleem (Assalamu alaika ayyuhan nabiyu wa rahmatul lahi wa barakatuh. Assalamu alaina wa 'ala ibadil lahis saliheen. Assalamu alaikum wa rahmatul lahi wa barakatuh: May God's peace and blessings be with you, O Prophet! May peace be with us and the good among God's servants. May peace be with you).

It is worth noting, though, that I observed my father while he was praying dhuhr and asr, which are a four-ruku prayers. He said both in the same way he said isha prayer. The only difference, however, was that he recited both the chapters in a lowered voice, except for basmalah. In maghrib prayer, he concluded it at the end of the third ruku, by uttering tashahhud and tasleem after he completed the second sujood. As for subh prayer, he concluded the prayer at the end of the second ruku, for subh is a two-ruku prayer.

Having observed how my father goes about conducting prayer, I have noticed few points I would like to share with you:

1. He is very keen on saying prayers at their prescribed times. In this regard, he used to cite the hadith (saying or tradition) from Imam Ja'far as-Sadiq (a.s.), "The precedence of the onset of the time of a prayer, over saying it at the end of that time, is similar to the precedence of the Hereafter over this world".

2. At times, he used to say asr prayer immediately after dhuhr. He often does the same when it comes to isha prayer which he says immediately after maghrib. When I asked him as to why he used to do that, he said you have the choice of saying these prayers either consecutively or separately.

3. When he gets ready for prayer, his appearance assumes a dimension of humility and submissivenes; I often hear him recite the Holy Verse, "Successful indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers". (23/1)

4. He made a habit of paying great attention to the proper execution of all actions and utterances of prayer, be it a pause, a stillness of posture, or the sequence and continuance of movements and utterances.

5. My father did his best in executing the recitation of the two chapters of the Holy Qur'an during prayer, by giving due attention to the proper pronunciation of the letters in a word and the word itself in relation to other words in the particular verses. He treated other utterances in the same way.

6. I have also noticed that he used to perform special prayers either before the time of the five daily prayers or after he had finished. When I asked him as to what they mean, he told me that those were voluntary prayers that are mustahab to offer.

7. Among other meritorious acts of worship he used to do after prayer, is asking God's forgiveness for himself, his parents, his relatives, and the brethren. Also, he often uses his rosary beads to chant the praise of the Almighty in a particular way, in that he chants (Allahu Akbar) thirty four times, (Alhamdu Lillah), and (Subhanal Lah) thirty three times each. He told me it is called Tasbihuz Zahra' (Praising of the Lord as used to be carried out by the daughter of Prophet Mohammad, Fatima az-Zahra' 'a.s.').

by Dr. Zakir Naik

I

Position of Jesus (pbuh) in Islam:

(i)

Islam is the only non-Christian faith, which makes it an article of faith to believe in Jesus (pbuh). No Muslim is a Muslim if he does not believe in Jesus (pbuh).

(ii)

We believe that he was one of the mightiest Messengers of Allah (swt).

(iii)

We believe that he was born miraculously, without any male intervention, which many modern day Christians do not believe.

(iv)

We believe he was the Messiah translated Christ (pbuh).

(v)

We believe that he gave life to the dead with God's permission.

(iv)

We believe that he healed those born blind, and the lepers with God's permission.

II

CONCEPT OF GOD IN CHRISTIANITY:

1.

Jesus Christ (pbuh) never claimed Divinity

One may ask, if both Muslims and Christians love and respect Jesus (pbuh), where exactly is the parting of ways? The major difference between Islam and Christianity is the Christians' insistence on the supposed divinity of Christ (pbuh). A study of the Christian scriptures reveals that Jesus (pbuh) never claimed divinity. In fact there is not a single unequivocal statement in the entire Bible where Jesus (pbuh) himself says, "I am God" or where he says, "worship me". In fact the Bible contains statements attributed to Jesus (pbuh) in which he preached quite the contrary. The following statements in the Bible are attributed to Jesus Christ (pbuh):

(i) "My Father is greater than I."

[The Bible, John 14:28]

(ii) "My Father is greater than all."

[The Bible, John 10:29]

(iii) "…I cast out devils by the Spirit of God…."

[The Bible, Mathew 12:28]

(iv) "…I with the finger of God cast out devils…."

[The Bible, Luke 11:20]

(v) "I can of mine own self do nothing: as I hear, I judge: and my judgment is just; because I seek not my own will, but the will of the Father which hath sent me."

[The Bible, John 5:30]

2.

The Mission of Jesus Christ (pbuh) - to Fulfill the Law

Jesus (pbuh) never claimed divinity for himself. He clearly announced the nature of his mission. Jesus (pbuh) was sent by God to confirm the previous Judaic law. This is clearly evident in the following statements attributed to Jesus (pbuh) in the Gospel of Mathew:

"Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the Prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled.

"Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven; but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven."

"For I say unto you, That except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the scribes and Pharisees, ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of heaven."

[The Bible, Mathew 5:17-20]

3.

God Sent Jesus' (pbuh)

The Bible mentions the prophetic nature of Jesus (pbuh) mission in the following verses:

(i)

"… and the word which ye hear is not mine, but the Father's which sent me."

[The Bible, John 14:24]

(ii)

"And this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou has sent."

[The Bible, John 17:3]

4.

Jesus Refuted even the Remotest Suggestion of his Divinity

Consider the following incident mentioned in the Bible:

"And behold, one came and said unto him, 'Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?'

And he said unto him, 'Why callest thou me good? There is none good but one, that is, God: but if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.' "

[The Bible, Mathew 19:16-17]

Jesus (pbuh) did not say that to have the eternal life of paradise, man should believe in him as Almighty God or worship him as God, or believe that Jesus (pbuh) would die for his sins. On the contrary he said that the path to salvation was through keeping the commandments. It is indeed striking to note the difference between the words of Jesus Christ (pbuh) and the Christian dogma of salvation through the sacrifice of Jesus (pbuh).

5.

Jesus (pbuh) of Nazareth - a Man Approved of God

The following statement from the Bible supports the Islamic belief that Jesus (pbuh) was a prophet of God.

"Ye men of Israel, hear these words; Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of God among you by miracles and wonders and signs, which God did by him in the midst of you, as ye yourselves also know."

[The Bible, Acts 2:22]

6.

The First Commandment is that God is One

The Bible does not support the Christian belief in trinity at all. One of the scribes once asked Jesus (pbuh) as to which was the first commandment of all, to which Jesus (pbuh) merely repeated what Moses (pbuh) had said earlier:

"Shama Israelu Adonai Ila Hayno Adonai Ikhad."

This is a Hebrew quotation, which means:

"Hear, O Israel; The Lord our God is one Lord."

[The Bible, Mark 12:29]

It is striking that the basic teachings of the Church such as Trinity and vicarious atonement find no mention in the Bible. In fact, various verses of the Bible point to Jesus' (pbuh) actual mission, which was to fulfill the law revealed to Prophet Moses (pbuh). Indeed Jesus (pbuh) rejected any suggestions that attributed divinity to him, and explained his miracles as the power of the One True God.

Jesus (pbuh) thus reiterated the message of monotheism that was given by all earlier prophets of Almighty God.

NOTE: All quotations of the Bible are taken from the King James Version.

III

CONCEPT OF GOD IN OLD TESTAMENT:

1.

God is One

The following verse from the book of Deuteronomy contains an exhortation from Moses (pbuh):

"Shama Israelu Adonai Ila Hayno Adna Ikhad".

It is a Hebrew quotation which means:

"Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord"

[The Bible, Deuteronomy 6:4]

2.

Unity of God in the Book of Isaiah

The following verses are from the Book of Isaiah:

(i)

"I, even I, am the Lord; and beside me there is no saviour."

[The Bible, Isaiah 43:11]

(ii)

"I am Lord, and there is none else, there is no God besides me."

[The Bible, Isaiah 45:5]

(iii)

"I am God, and there is none else; I am God, and there is none like me."

[The Bible, Isaiah 46:9]

3.

Old Testament condemns idol worship

(i)

Old Testament condemns idol worship in the following verses:

"Thou shalt have no other gods before me."

"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:"

"Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God."

[The Bible, Exodus 20:3-5]

(ii)

A similar message is repeated in the book of Deuteronomy:

"Thou shalt have none other gods before me."

"Thou shalt not make thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that in the earth beneath, or that is in the water beneath the earth."

"Thou shalt not bow down thyself unto them, nor serve them; for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God."

[The Bible, Deuteronomy 5:7-9]

The most concise definition of God in Islam is given in the four verses of Surah Ikhlas which is Chapter 112 of the Qur'an:

"Say: He is Allah,

The One and Only.

"Allah, the Eternal, Absolute.

"He begets not, nor is He begotten.

And there is none like unto Him."

[Al-Qur'an 112:1-4]

The word 'Assamad' is difficult to translate. It means 'absolute existence', which can be attributed only to Allah (swt), all other existence being temporal or conditional. It also means that Allah (swt) is not dependant on any person or thing, but all persons and things are dependant on Him.

Surah Ikhlas - the touchstone of theology:

Surah Ikhlas (Chapter 112) of the Glorious Qur'an, is the touchstone of theology. 'Theo' in Greek means God and 'logy' means study. Thus Theology means study of God and to Muslims this four line definition of Almighty God serves as the touchstone of the study of God. Any candidate to divinity must be subjected to this 'acid test'. Since the attributes of Allah given in this chapter are unique, false gods and pretenders to divinity can be easily dismissed using these verses.

What does Islam say about 'god-men'?

India is often called the land of 'god-men'. This is due to the abundance of so-called spiritual masters in India. Many of these 'babas' and 'saints' have a large following in many countries. Islam abhors deification of any human being. To understand the Islamic stand towards such pretenders to divinity, let us analyze one such 'god-man', Osho Rajneesh.

Let us put this candidate, 'Bhagwan' Rajneesh, to the test of Surah Ikhlas, the touchstone of theology:

i)

The first criterion is "Say, He is Allah, one and only". Is Rajneesh one and only? No! Rajneesh was one among the multitude of 'spiritual teachers' produced by India. Some disciples of Rajneesh might still hold that Rajneesh is one and only.

ii)

The second criterion is, 'Allah is absolute and eternal'. We know from Rajneesh's biography that he was suffering from diabetes, asthma, and chronic backache. He alleged that the U.S. Government gave him slow poison in prison. Imagine Almighty God being poisoned! Rajneesh was thus, neither absolute nor eternal.

iii)

The third criterion is 'He begets not, nor is He begotten'. We know that Rajneesh was born in Jabalpur in India and had a mother as well as a father who later became his disciples.

In May 1981 he went to U.S.A. and established a town called 'Rajneeshpuram'. He later fell foul of the West and was finally arrested and asked to leave the country. He came back to India and started a commune in Pune which is now known as the 'Osho' commune. He died in 1990. The followers of Osho Rajneesh believe that he is Almighty God. At the 'Osho commune' in Pune one can find the following epitaph on his tombstone:

"Osho - never born, never died; only visited the planet Earth between 11th December 1931 to 19th January 1990."

They forget to mention that he was not granted visa for 21 countries of the world. Can a person ever imagine 'God' visiting the earth, and requiring a visa to enter a country! The Archbishop of Greece said that if Rajneesh had not been deported, they would have burnt his house and those of his disciples.

(iv)

The fourth test, which is the most stringent is, "There is none like unto Him". The moment you can imagine or compare 'God' to anything, then he (the candidate to divinity) is not God. It is not possible to conjure up a mental picture of the One True God. We know that Rajneesh was a human being, having two eyes, two ears, a nose, a mouth and a white flowing beard. Photographs and posters of Rajneesh are available in plenty. The moment you can imagine or draw a mental picture of an entity, then that entity is not God.

Many are tempted to make anthropomorphic comparisons of God. Take for instance, Arnold Schwarzenegger, the famous body builder and Hollywood actor, who won the title of 'Mr. Universe', the strongest man in the world. Let us suppose that someone says that Almighty God is a thousand times stronger than Arnold Schwarzenegger. The moment you can compare any entity to God, whether the comparison is to Schwarzenegger or to King Kong, whether it is a thousand times or a million times stronger, it fails the Qur'anic criterion, "There is none like unto Him".

Thus, the 'acid test' cannot be passed by anyone except the One True God.

The following verse of the Glorious Qur'an conveys a similar message:

"No vision can grasp Him

But His grasp is over

All vision: He is

Above all comprehension,

Yet is acquainted with all things."

[Al-Qur'an 6:103]

By what name do we call God?

The Muslims prefer calling the Supreme Creator, Allah, instead of by the English word 'God'. The Arabic word, 'Allah', is pure and unique, unlike the English word 'God', which can be played around with.

If you add 's' to the word God, it becomes 'Gods', that is the plural of God. Allah is one and singular, there is no plural of Allah. If you add 'dess' to the word God, it becomes 'Goddess' that is a female God. There is nothing like male Allah or female Allah. Allah has no gender. If you add the word 'father' to 'God' it becomes 'God-father'. God-father means someone who is a guardian. There is no word like 'Allah-Abba' or 'Allah-father'. If you add the word 'mother' to 'God', it becomes 'God-mother'. There is nothing like 'Allah-Ammi', or 'Allah-mother' in Islam. Allah is a unique word. If you prefix tin before the word God, it becomes tin-God i.e., fake God. Allah is a unique word, which does not conjure up any mental picture nor can it be played around with. Therefore the Muslims prefer using the Arabic word 'Allah' for the Almighty. Sometimes, however, while speaking to the non-Muslims we may have to use the inappropriate word God, for Allah. Since the intended audience of this article is general in nature, consisting of both Muslims as well as non-Muslims, I have used the word God instead of Allah in several places in this article.

God does not become a human being:

God does not take human form:

Some may argue that God does not become a human being but only takes a human form. If God only takes a human form but does not become a human being, He should not possess any human qualities. We know that all the 'God-men', have human qualities and failings. They have all the human needs such as the need to eat, sleep, etc.

The worship of God in human form is therefore a logical fallacy and should be abhorred in all its forms and manifestations.

That is the reason why the Qur'an speaks against all forms of anthropomorphism. The Glorious Qur'an says in the following verse:

"There is nothing whatever like unto Him."

[Al-Qur'an 42:11]

God does not perform ungodly acts:

The attributes of Almighty God preclude any evil since God is the source of justice, mercy and truth. God can never be thought of as doing an ungodly act. Hence we cannot imagine God telling a lie, being unjust, making a mistake, forgetting things, or having any such human failings. Similarly God can do injustice if He chooses to, but He will never do it because being unjust is an ungodly act.

The Qur'an says:

"Allah is never unjust In the least degree."

[Al-Qur'an 4:40]

God can be unjust if He chooses to be so, but the moment God does injustice, He ceases to be God.

God does not make mistakes

God can make mistakes if He wants to, but He does not make mistakes because making a mistake is an ungodly act. The Qur'an says:

"…my Lord never errs."

[Holy Qur'an 20:52]

The moment God makes a mistake, he ceases to be God.

God does not forget

God can forget if He wants to. But God does not forget anything because forgetting is an ungodly act, which reeks of human limitations and failings. The Qur'an says:

"…my Lord never errs, nor forgets."

[Al-Qur'an 20:52]

God only performs Godly acts:

The Islamic concept of God is that God has power over all things. The Qur'an says in several places (Al -Qur'an 2:106; 2:109; 2:284; 3:29; 16:77; and 35:1):

"For verily Allah has power over all things"

Further, the Glorious Qur'an says:

"Allah is the doer of all that He intends."

[Al-Qur'an 85:16]

We must keep in mind that Allah intends only Godly acts and not ungodly acts.

PHILOSOPHY OF ANTHROPOMORPHISM

Many religions at some point believe, directly or indirectly, in the philosophy of anthropomorphism i.e. God becoming a human. Their contention is that Almighty God is so pure and holy that He is unaware of the hardships, shortcomings and feelings of human beings. In order to set the rules for human beings, He came down to earth as a human. This deceptive logic has fooled countless millions through the ages. Let us now analyze this argument and see if it stands to reason.

The Creator prepares the instruction manual:

Suppose I manufacture a video cassette recorder (VCR). Do I have to become a VCR to know what is good or what is bad for the VCR? What do I do? I write an instruction manual: "In order to watch a video cassette, insert the cassette and press the play button. In order to stop, press the stop button. If you want to fast forward press the FF button. Do not drop it from a height or it will get damaged. Do not immerse it in water or it will get spoilt". I write an instruction manual that lists the various do's and don'ts for the machine.

Holy Qur'an is the instruction manual for the human being:

Similarly, our Lord and Creator Allah (swt) need not take human form to know what is good or bad for the human being. He chooses to reveal the instruction manual. The last and final instruction manual of the human beings is the Glorious Qur'an. The 'dos' and 'don'ts' for the human beings are mentioned in the Qur'an.

If you allow me to compare human beings with machines, I would say humans are more complicated than the most complex machines in the world. Even the most advanced computers, which are extremely complex, are pale in comparison to the myriad physical, psychological, genetic and social factors that affect individual and collective human life.

The more advanced the machine, greater is the need for its instruction manual. By the same logic, don't human beings require an instruction manual by which to govern their own lives?

Allah chooses Messengers:

Allah (swt) need not come down personally for giving the instruction manual. He chooses a man amongst men to deliver the message and communicates with him at a higher level through the medium of revelations. Such chosen men are called messengers and prophets of God.

Some people are 'blind' and 'deaf':

Despite the absurdity of the philosophy of anthropomorphism, followers of many religions believe in and preach it to others. Is it not an insult to human intelligence and to the Creator who gave us this intelligence? Such people are truly 'deaf' and 'blind' despite the faculty of hearing and sight given to them by Allah. The Qur'an says:

"Deaf, dumb, and blind,

They will not return (to the path)."

[Al-Qur'an 2:18]

The Bible gives a similar message in the Gospel of Matthew:

"Seeing they see not; and hearing they hear not, neither do they understand."

[The Bible, Matthew 13:13]

A similar message is also given in the Hindu Scriptures in the Rigveda.

"There maybe someone who sees the words and yet indeed does not see them; may be another one who hears these words but indeed does not hear them." 1

[Rigveda 10:71:4]

All these scriptures are telling their readers that though the things are made so clear yet many people divert away from the truth.

Attributes of God:

To Allah belong the most beautiful names:

The Qur'an says:

"Say: Call upon Allah, or

Call upon Rahman:

By whatever name you call

Upon Him, (it is well):

For to Him belong

The Most Beautiful Names."

[Al-Qur'an 17:110]

A similar message regarding the beautiful names of Allah (swt) is repeated in the Qur'an in Surah Al-A'raf (7:180), in Surah Taha (20:8) and in Surah Al-Hashr (59:24).

The Qur'an gives no less than ninety-nine different attributes to Almighty Allah. The Qur'an refers to Allah as Ar-Rahman (Most Gracious), Ar-Raheem (Most Merciful) and Al-Hakeem (All Wise) among many other names. You can call Allah by any name but that name should be beautiful and should not conjure up a mental picture.

Each attribute of God is unique and possessed by Him alone:

Not only does God possess unique attributes, but also each attribute of Almighty God is sufficient to identify Him. I shall clarify this point in detail. Let us take an example of a famous personality, say Neil Armstrong. Neil Armstrong is an astronaut. The attribute of being an astronaut possessed by Neil Armstrong is correct but not unique to Neil Armstrong alone. So when one asks, who is an astronaut? The answer is, there are hundreds of people in the world who are astronauts. Neil Armstrong is an American. The attribute of being American possessed by Neil Armstrong is correct but not sufficient to identify him. So when one asks, who is an American? The answer is, there are millions of people who are American. To identify the person uniquely we must look for a unique attribute possessed by none except that person. For example, Neil Armstrong was the first human to set foot on the moon. So when one asks, who was the first man to set foot on the moon, the answer is only one, i.e. Neil Armstrong. Similarly the attribute of Almighty God should be unique. If I say God is the constructor of buildings, it is possible and true, but it is not unique. Thousands of people can construct a building. But each attribute of Allah is unique and points to none but Allah. For example, God is the creator of the universe. If someone asks who is the creator of the universe, the answer is only one, i.e. Almighty God is the Ultimate Creator. Similarly, following are some of the many unique attributes possessed by none other than the Creator of the universe, Almighty Allah:

"Ar-Raheem", the Most Merciful

"Ar-Rahman", the Most Gracious

"Al-Hakeem", the Most Wise

So when one asks, "Who is 'Ar-Raheem', (the Most Merciful)?", there can only be one answer: "Almighty Allah".

One attribute of God should not contradict with other attributes:

Besides the attribute being unique, it should not contradict other attributes. To continue with the earlier example, suppose somebody says that Neil Armstrong is an American astronaut who was the first human to set foot on the moon and was an Indian. The attribute possessed by Neil Armstrong of being the first man to set foot on the moon, is correct. But its associated quality of being an Indian, is false. Similarly if someone says that God is the Creator of the Universe and has one head, two hands, two feet, etc., the attribute (Creator of the Universe) is correct but the associated quality (in the form of human being) is wrong and false.

All attributes should point to the one and same God:

Since there is only one God, all the attributes should point to one and the same God. To say that Neil Armstrong was an American astronaut who first set foot on the moon, but he was born in 1971 is wrong. Both these unique qualities belong to one and the same person, i.e. Neil Armstrong. Similarly to say that the Creator of the universe is one God and the Cherisher is another God is absurd because God possesses all these attributes combined together.

Unity of God:

Some polytheists argue by saying that the existence of more than one God is not illogical. Let us point out to them that if there were more than one God, they would dispute with one another, each god trying to fulfill his will against the will of the other gods. This can be seen in the mythology of the polytheistic and pantheistic religions. If a 'God' is defeated or unable to defeat the others, he is surely not the one true God. Also popular among polytheistic religions is the idea of many Gods, each having different responsibilities. Each one would be responsible for a part of man's existence e.g. a Sun-God, a Rain-God, etc. This indicates that one 'God' is incompetent of certain acts and moreover he is also ignorant of the other Gods' powers, duties, functions and responsibilities. There cannot be an ignorant and incapable God. If there were more than one God it would surely lead to confusion, disorder, chaos and destruction in the universe. But the universe is in complete harmony. The Glorious Qur'an says:

"If there were, in the heavens

And the earth, other gods

Besides Allah, there would

Have been confusion in both!

But glory to Allah,

The Lord of the Throne:

(High is He) above

What they attribute to Him!"

[Al-Qur'an 21:22]

If there were more than one God, they would have taken away what they created. The Qur'an says:

"No son did Allah beget,

Nor is there any god

Along with Him: (if there were

Many gods), behold, each god

Would have taken away

What he had created,

And some would have

Lorded it over others!

Glory to Allah! (He is free)

From the (sort of) things

They attribute to Him!"

[Al-Qur'an 23:91]

Thus the existence of one True, Unique, Supreme, Almighty God, is the only logical concept of God.

TAWHEED:

Definition and Categories:

Islam believes in 'Tawheed' which is not merely monotheism i.e. belief in one God, but much more. Tawheed literally means 'unification' i.e. 'asserting oneness' and is derived from the Arabic verb 'Wahhada' which means to unite, unify or consolidate.

Tawheed can be divided into three categories.

1. Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah

2. Tawheed al-Asmaa-was-Sifaat

3. Tawheed al-Ibaadah.

A.

Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah (maintaining the unity of Lordship)

The first category is 'Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah'. 'Ruboobeeyah' is derived from the root verb "Rabb" meaning Lord, Sustainer and Cherisher.

Therefore 'Tawheed-ar-Ruboobeeyah' means maintaining the unity of Lordship. This category is based on the fundamental concept that Allah (swt) alone caused all things to exist when there was nothing. He created or originated all that exists out of nothing. He alone is the sole Creator, Cherisher, and Sustainer of the complete universe and all between it, without any need from it or for it.

B.

Tawheed al-Asmaa was-Sifaat (maintaining the unity of Allah's name and attributes):

The second category is 'Tawheed al Asmaa was Sifaat' which means maintaining the unity of Allah's name and attributes. This category is divided into five aspects:

(i)

Allah should be referred to as described by Him and His Prophet

Allah must be referred to according to the manner in which He and His prophet have described Him without explaining His names and attributes by giving them meanings other than their obvious meanings.

(ii)

Allah must be referred to as He has referred to Himself

Allah must be referred to without giving Him any new names or attributes. For example Allah may not be given the name Al-Ghaadib (the Angry One), despite the fact that He has said that He gets angry, because neither Allah nor His messenger have used this name.

(iii)

Allah is referred to without giving Him the attributes of His creation

In a reference to God, we should strictly abstain from giving Him the attributes of those whom He has created. For instance in the Bible, God is portrayed as repenting for His bad thoughts in the same way as humans do when they realise their errors. This is completely against the principle of Tawheed. God does not commit any mistakes or errors and therefore never needs to repent.

The key principle when dealing with Allah's attributes is given in the Qur'an in Surah Ash-Shura:

"There is nothing

Whatever like unto Him,

And He is the One

That hears and sees (all things)."

[Al-Qur'an 42:11]

Hearing and seeing are human faculties. However, when attributed to the Divine Being they are without comparison, in their perfection, unlike when associated with humans who require ears, eyes, etc. and who are limited in their sight and hearing in terms of space, time, capacity, etc.

(iv)

God's creation should not be given any of His attributes

To refer to a human with the attribute of God is also against the principle of Tawheed. For example, referring to a person as one who has no beginning or end (eternal).

(v)

Allah's name cannot be given to His creatures

Some Divine names in the indefinite form, like 'Raoof' or 'Raheem' are permissible names for men as Allah has used them for Prophets; but 'Ar-Raoof' (the Most Pious) and Ar-Raheem (the most Merciful) can only be used if prefixed by 'Abd' meaning 'slave of' or 'servant of' i.e. 'Abdur-Raoof' or 'Abdur-Raheem'. Similarly 'Abdur-Rasool' (slave of the Messenger) or 'Abdun-Nabee' (slave of the Prophet) are forbidden.

C.

Tawheed al-Ibaadah (maintaining the unity of worship):

(i)

Definition and meaning of 'Ibadaah':

'Tawheed al-Ibaadah' means maintaining the unity of worship or 'Ibaadah'. Ibaadah is derived from Arabic word 'Abd' meaning slave or servant. Thus Ibaadah means servitude and worship.

(ii)

All three categories to be followed simultaneously.

Only believing in the first two categories of Tawheed without implementing Tawheed-al-Ibaadah is useless. The Qur'an gives the examples of 'Mushrikeens' (idolaters) of the Prophet's time who confirmed the first two aspects of Tawheed. It is mentioned in the Qur'an:

"Say: 'Who is it that

Sustains you (in life)

From the sky and from the earth?

Or who is it that

Has power over hearing

And sight? And who

Is it that brings out

The living from the dead

And the dead from the living?

And who is it that

Rules and regulates all affairs?'

They will soon say, 'Allah'.

Say, 'Will you not then

Show piety (to Him)?' "

[Al-Qur'an 10:31]

A similar example is repeated in Surah Zukhruf of the Glorious Qur'an:

"If thou ask them, Who

Created them, they will

Certainly say, 'Allah': how

Then are they deluded

Away (from the Truth)?"

[Al-Qur'an 43:87]

The pagan Meccans knew that Allah (swt) was their Creator, Sustainer, Lord and Master. Yet they were not Muslims because they also worshipped other gods besides Allah. Allah (swt) categorised them as 'Kuffaar' (disbelievers) and 'Mushrikeen' (idol worshippers and those who associate partners with God).

"And most of them

Believe not in Allah

Without associating (others

As partners) with Him!"

[Al-Qur'an 12:106]

Thus 'Tawheed al-Ibaadah' i.e. maintaining the unity of worship is the most important aspect of Tawheed. Allah (swt) alone deserves worship and He alone can grant benefit to man for his worship.

SHIRK:

A.

Definition:The omission of any of the above mentioned categories of tawheed or deficiency in the fulfillment of any criteria of Tawheed is referred to as 'shirk'.(Please note that the Arabic word 'Shirk' has the same sound as in the English word 'ship' and not as in the English word 'shirk',which means 'to evade'

'Shirk' literally means sharing or associating partners. In Islamic terms it means associating partners with Allah and is equivalent to idolatry.

B.

Shirk is the greatest sin that Allah will never forgive:

The Qur'an describes the greatest sin in Surah Al-Nisa':

"Allah forgives not

That partners should be set up

With Him; but He forgives

Anything else, to whom

He pleases; to set up

Partners with Allah

Is to devise a sin

Most heinous indeed."

[Al-Qur'an 4:48]

The same message is repeated in Surah Al-Nisa':

"Allah forgives not

(The sin of) joining other gods

With Him; but He forgives

Whom He pleases other sins

Than this: one who joins

Other gods with Allah,

Has strayed far, far away

(From the Right)."

[Al-Qur'an 4:116]

C.

Shirk leads to hell fire:

The Qur'an says in Surah Ma'idah:

"They do blaspheme who say:

'Allah is Christ the son

Of Mary.' But said Christ:

'O Children of Israel! Worship Allah, my Lord

And your Lord'. Whoever joins other gods with Allah -

Allah will forbid him the Garden, and the Fire

Will be his abode. There will for the wrongdoers

Be no one to help."

[Al-Qur'an 5:72]

D.

Worship and Obedience to none but Allah:

The Qur'an mentions in Surah Ali-'Imran:

Say: "O people of the Book!

Come To common terms

As between us and you:

That we worship none but Allah;

That we associate no partners with Him;

That we erect not, from among ourselves,

Lords and patrons other than Allah."

If then they turn back,

Say ye: "Bear witness that we (at least)

Are Muslims (bowing to Allah's Will)."

[Al-Qur'an 3:64]

The Glorious Qur'an says:

"And if all the trees on earth were pens

And the Ocean (were ink), with seven Oceans behind it

To add to its (supply), yet would not the Words

Of Allah be exhausted (In the writing): for Allah

Is Exalted in power, Full of Wisdom."

[Al-Qur'an 31:27]

Our analysis of Concept of God in various Religion shows that monotheism is an integral part of every major religion of the world. However, it is unfortunate that some adherents of these religions violate the teachings of their own scriptures and have set up partners to Almighty God.

An analysis of the scriptures of various religions, reveals that all scriptures exhort mankind to believe in, and submit to One God. All these scriptures condemn the association of partners to God, or the worship of God in the form of images. The Glorious Qur'an says:

"O men! Here is

A parable set forth!

Listen to it! Those

On whom, besides Allah,

You call, cannot create

(Even) a fly, if they all

Met together for the purpose!

And if the fly should snatch

Away anything from them,

They would have no power

To release it from the fly.

Feeble are those who petition

And those whom they petition!"

[Al-Qur'an 22:73]

The basis of religion is the acceptance of Divine guidance. A rejection of this guidance has serious implications for society. While we have made great strides in science and technology, true peace still eludes us. All 'isms' have failed to provide the much vaunted deliverance.

The scriptures of all major religions exhort mankind to follow that which is good and eschew that which is evil. All scriptures remind mankind that good will not go unrewarded and evil will not go unpunished!

The question we need to address is, which of these scriptures provides us with the correct 'instruction manual' that we need to regulate our individual and collective lives?

I hope and pray that Allah guides all of us towards the Truth (Aameen).

No one has the right to expel anyone out of Islam and to consider him/her unbeliever (or Kafir) so far as:

• he/she witness that there is no god Except one God (Allah), who has no partners, and that Muhammad is his messenger and prophet
• he/she doesn't deny intentionally any of the five pillars of Islam

As for Sunnis and Shiites, they, both, believe that there is no god except the one and only one God, the Creator with no partner, no father, no son, no companion, and no resemblance, and that the prophet is His messenger. They both believe in God's Angels, all Prophets sent from God, all of God's holy book, the Day of Judgment, and destiny. They believe in the five Pillars of Islam. They both face the direction of Kaaba when praying. They pray in any mosque regardless of whether the prayer leader is Sunni or Shi'ite. They may differ in some minor details of rituals but these details are not critical to neither the Shiites nor the Sunnis.

The major difference is historical. The Shiites did not agree on the elected Caliphs (who followed Prophet Muhammad after his death). They believed that the Caliphs should only be selected by God according to Koran and prophet has said all Caliphs after him are within Prophet Muhammad descendants and family. Accordingly, they were supporting Ali Ibn about Taleb (Prophet cousin and the husband of prophet's daughter Fatima Zahra) to be the first Caliph. they did protest against the elected Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Omar, and Othman). Ali supported and helped Caliphs and was adviser to the three Caliphs until he was elected as the fourth Caliph.

However, some Shiites (not all) have some minor practices and habits that do not go along with Islam's teachings, such as beating one's self on the day of Ashura (Qatl-un-Nafs, a major sin) and creating pictures of Hassan and Hussein. Some other Shiites (not all of them) wrongly (and against Islamic teachings) elevate Ali (RA) over the Prophet (S) and/or believe that Allah has the same powers as the Imams. they were called AliAllahi that Ali storngly opposed them and threaten them to burn them. Some other Shiites (as well as some other Sunnis) ask the deceased descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (S) for things as mediators to Allah according verse 5:35 of Koran saying seek the means of approach unto Him (Allah). These wrong practices, by either Shiites or Sunnis, are called Bid'ah (innovation in English) and is said that 'kulli bid'atin dalalatin, WA kulli dalalatin fin-nar' (in English: Each innovation is misguidance, and each misguidance will be in the hell fire). However, the basic Islam beliefs remain the same for both Sunnis and Shiites.

A majority of the Muslims are Sunnis. Sunnis constitute about 80% of all world Muslims. Shiites are majority mainly in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, and some parts of Pakistan.

The major difference comes in following the Hadith (Sermons of the Prophet). Since both the groups had their own historians, there were contradicting facts between the individual books. The Sunni's believe in the Quran and the Sunnah (Hadith) whereas Shia's believe in the Quran, Sunnah and the Ahlalbayt (Prophet's Family). After the death of the Prophet, the two major sects were formed, one who followed Abu Bakr as Siddique and the other who followed Ali ibn Abi Talib. The major argument between the groups was that the Prophet had already chosen a successor in the place called Ghadeer al-Khum, which was Ali, and that, the future 2nd Caliphate bore witness and allegiance to him. But after Prophet's death, it was argued that a successor wasn't chosen and that the Muslim's had the right to chose the successor and thus Abu Bakr was chosen by the Muslims. However, the events leading to the succession led to a forming of groups. Some of the questions asked by the people were: Was it right to choose a successor if a successor was already chosen; was it morally right to choose a successor soon after the demise of the Prophet, choosing to be absent from his funeral to be able to select the successor; Was it right to have the elections withing close doors, without representing the major parties to the election (Ali being absent from elections as he was attending the funeral), and was it right to let just the elite and nobles to choose without the proper voting from the general public of the Arab World? Another question that came later on was that if successor is chosen by the people and thus Abu Bakr was chosen as the successor by the people, why was Omal al-Khattab chosen as successor by Abu Bakr, why didn't he let the people choose him if that's according to the Islamic tradition? These were some of the question that were raised at that time.

However, according to the main difference, Sunni's emphasize more on the companion of the Prophet for his way of living whereas Shia's emphasize on the Prophet's family (Ahlalbayt) for relying on the Prophet's life. The Shia's believe that the 12 Imams (descendants of the Prophet) were infallible, that is pure from sins, based on the hadith of the Prophet, and have lived life according to the way the Prophet led his life.

More details from Shiites view

Shia and Sunni have mainly conflict on Imamat (leadership).

shia say Imamat is one of 5 pillars of Islam and only God can select leader for people. but sunni say Imamat is not part of Islam and leader can be selected by people by any method like shura (for example for Abubakr) or by will of previous leader for example for Omar) or by people (for example for Ali).

the conflict of shia and sunni has been always amplified by world Imperialism to prevent Islam from spreading in world.

Shia believes in Allah, prophet and all fundamentals of Islam.

Shia pray 5 times a day but usually do the 2, 3 and 4, 5 pray together and so may seem they do only 3 pray a day. there is some differences in details of pray like genuflect (for shia should be on a stone or part of earth and for sunni on carpet or floor ).

shia believe after death of prophet God selected the successive for prophet who is the political leader of Muslim community and people can not and does not the right to selected it.

shia refers to many verse of Quran like: "Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority" (Quran 2:30) or "O David! We did indeed make thee a vicegerent on earth" (Quran 38:26) also other verses.

Shia believes such verses means only God can select an Islamic political leader (Caliph) and there is no mention in Quran people have the right to select leader. and shura is not allowed to be used for selecting leader and prophet himself always selected leaders of wars and other leaders by command of God.

In Shia Islam Caliphs after prophet are 12 infallible Imams who have inherited divine knowledge of prophet.

Shia Muslims do not consider selection of Abubakr as Caliph by people valid because God did not select him. They believe God ordered prophet to declare people that Ali is selected as successor of prophet and prophet did this mission many times during his prophet-hood and mainly in Ghadir event after last Hajj of his life at a 3-4 hour speech in front of 120,000 Muslims at Ghadir in hot desert after 2 days stop of long caravan for gathering and 3 days after speech for congratulations and homage of Muslims to Ali.

Islam at that time had high power in world and Some companions had high interest in leadership position after prophet. Muslims knew that it is the final Hajj of prophet (predicted by prophet) and were going along with prophet to hear what prophet says at end of his life.

Shia believes Ghadir event is the most important event of Islam and is mentioned in Koran in many verses like "Today" (اليوم) in verse 5:3 of Quran is the day of Ghadir. Or Verse 5:67: "(O Messenger! proclaim the (message) which hath been sent to thee from thy Lord. If thou didst not, thou wouldst not have fulfilled and proclaimed His mission. And Allah will defend thee from men (who mean mischief). For Allah guide not those who reject Faith)" is revealed at Ghadir day and is about declaring political and spiritual leadership of Ali S.A. after prophet.

Both Sunni and Shia Muslims accept happening of Ghadir event But different interpret. Some Sunni writers tried to reject the event of Ghadir as declare of leadership of Ali S.A. and said at Ghadir prophet only wanted to say Ali S.A. is my friend and no one should bother him.

Ali S.A. had 3 different missions to Yemen by prophet during 10 years and in 2 of them some companions of prophet had some conflicts with Ali S.A. and prophet said some sayings about Ali S.A. to solve conflicts and some sunni writers have mixed stories of missions of Ali S.A. to Yemen with story of Ghadir to prove Ghadir event is not about Leadership of Ali and is not important.

Shia scholars believe some Sunni writers who were related to Kings have changed and deviated historical evidences about political leadership of Ali S.A. in old historical books and republished them to destroy evidences of leadership of Ali from old Sunni books.

The famous Shia book Al-Ghadir (الغدير) by Allameh Amini is a collection of evidences and proofs for Ghadir Events written all from sunni historical books by referring to 100,000 Sunni books and full reading of 10,000 sunni books. Allameh Amini is a famous Shia scholar and spent 40 years of his life in traveling to access original old Sunni books in libraries in different countries to write this 20 volume book only from Sunni books and not using any Shia book. Some Sunni scholars tried to reply this book but then said if we want to reply this book we should first destroy all sunni books.

Shia doctrine have root in Battle Karbala.

When tragedy of Karbala happened most of Iranians understood there is two different interpret of Islam that both can not be true. so most of Iranians became shia and followers of "Ahl al-Bayt" and forgive their lives for them like what they did in Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War.

Shia Muslims have at least 120,000 Hadith (saying) from The Fourteen Infallibles that is the base of Shia Islam along with Quran.

Shia believes according to " Hadith of the two weighty things" The Fourteen Infallible are the only valid interpreters of Quran and sayings of them are from God because they are Representative of God in earth and they have inherited divine knowledge of prophet.

Shia believes 12th of them (Imam Mahdi S.A.) is alive and because people have killed all 11 Imams before him, he is in occultation like Jesus S.A. and will rise with Jesus S.A. when people become ready and want to accept his leadership. All 11 Imams have been killed and during their life they all have been in prison or under hard control of government to not have any political activity.

They never had enough serious followers to can get political power. Among them only the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq was relatively free (for transition of power between Umayyads and Abbasids) to have only scientific activities and so only he is known in west because he established university and had students from all over the world. Westerns know him as a polymath: an astronomer, alchemist, Imam, Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, writer, philosopher, physician, physicist and scientist. He was also the teacher of the famous chemist, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), and of Abū Ḥanīfa, the founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. He never wanted be a famous man and only shared his knowledge with seekers of knowledge. Some researchers consider his teachings the root cause of renaissance.

Sunni Muslims also accept Mahdi and his worldwide leadership as Caliph of God in earth at end of world. There is a famous Hadith from prophet Muhammad (PBUH) that Mahdi at occultation is like sun behind cloud, he is hidden from people but people receive his benefits.

Shia Muslims say some faithful believers have connection with Mahdi and use his knowledge and at least 1000 persons have had connection and talk with Mahdi during his occultation but Any one having relation with Mahdi S.A. should keep it secret and does not declare it in public until death.

However, Sunnis and Shiites are just two Islamic schools that differ in minor issues.The outsiders are trying to feed up assumed differences and conflicts between Muslim groups to gain control on Muslim countries and on their resources. The two main groups are Sunnis and Shiites. Both groups agree upon basic Islam pillars, believe in same and only version of Quran, believe and follow the sunnah of same prophet (PBUH), pray to same direction (facing Kaba in Makkah or Mecca in Saudi Arabia, go to same places on pilgrimage (or Hajj), and adhere to same Islam morals and ritual worships. They only differ on some side issues that are not critical.

Answer 4

While the differences between Sunnis and Shiites began simply as the political dispute over who the successor to Mohammed would be, over time, more and more distinctions developed between the two groups (without Western intervention - if I may add):

Imamat or Leadership: Shiites and Sunnis mainly have a conflict on Imamat (leadership).

Sunnis, the majority, believe that the first four caliphs, Mohammed's successors, rightfully took his place as the leaders of Islam. They recognize the heirs of the four caliphs as legitimate religious leaders. These heirs ruled continuously in the Arab world until the break-up of the Ottoman Empire following the end of the First World War.

The Shiites say that Imamat is one of the 5 pillars of Islam and only God can select a leader for people whereas the Sunnis say Imamat is not part of Islam and the leader can be selected by people by any method they propose, including Shura - High-Level Elections (for example for Abu Bakr) or by will of previous leader (for example for Omar) or by people (for example for Ali) provided he is capable of performing the job. Shiites believe after death of Mohammed, God selected the prophet's successor who should be the political leader of Muslim community and people cannot and do not have the right to select such an individual.

Self-Identification: Sunni Muslims agree with the position taken by many of the Prophet's companions, that the new leader of the Umma (Islamic Community) should be elected from among those capable of the job. This is what was done, and Mohammed's close friend and advisor, Abu Bakr, became the first Caliph of the Islamic nation. The word "Sunni" in Arabic comes from a word meaning "one who follows the traditions [of the Prophet]."

The word "Shiite" in Arabic means a group or supportive party of people. The commonly-known term is shortened from the historical "Shia-t-Ali," or "the Party of Ali." They are also known as followers of "Ahl-al-Bayt" or "People of the Household" (of the Prophet).

Prayer Styles: Shiites pray five times a day just like Sunnis but usually do the second and third prayers and fourth and fifth prayers together. Thus, it may seem they do only three prayers a day. There are some differences in details of prayer like genuflecting (for Shiite should be on a stone or part of earth and for the Sunnis it should be on carpet or floor).

Doctrines of Karbala: Shiite doctrines have their roots in Battle Karbala.

When tragedy of Karbala happened most of Iranians understood that there were two different interpretations of Islam that could not both be true. So, most of Iranians became Shiites and followers of "Ahl al-Bayt".

Hadith Collections: Shiite Muslims have at least 120,000 Hadith (sayings) from The Fourteen Infallible Imams (who came after Mohammed) that form the base of Shiite Islam along with Qur'an. Sunni Hadith collections are much smaller as they do not contain volumes from people who lived after the Prophet. Sunni collections also differ based on the School of Sunni Islam. Abu-Hanifa, Ibn Hanbal, Ash-Shafi'i, and Ibn Annas of the Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafi'i, and Maliki Schools each have their own collections.

The Imams and Infallibles: Sunnis do not believe in any of the following. Shiites believe according to "Hadith of the two weighty things" that the Fourteen Infallible Imams are the only valid interpreters of Quran and their sayings come directly from God because they are Representatives of God on earth and they have inherited divine knowledge of prophet. These individuals are the 12 Imams, the Prophet and his daughter Fatimah Zahra. All of them are without impurity and have no mistake and have knowledge of everything. (This knowledge is from God according to His will and is not absolute knowledge. Absolute knowledge is only for God and they still do not know many things, but they know anything a human may need to know.) They never died and they hear all sayings and even thoughts of all humans after their death by permission of God. They are intermediates between God and human.

Shiites do not accept that the Imam is to be only a political leader but they believe that they are literally 'manifestations of God', they are sinless, infallible and the bringers of true understanding to all humanity. They are referred to within the Shiite tradition as being masum, that is, free from error or sin.

Shiites believe that the 12th Imam (Imam Mahdi) is alive. Because people have killed all 11 Imams before him, he is in hiding like Jesus and will rise with Jesus when people become ready and want to accept his leadership. All 11 Imams have been killed and during their life they all have been in prison or under hard control of government to avoid them having any political activity.

They never had enough serious followers to allow them to attain political power. Among them only the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq was relatively free on account of the freedom afforded during the transition of power between the Umayyads and Abbassids. He is primarily known in the West to have taken part in scientific activities, established a university, and had students from all over the world. Westerners know him as a polymath: an astronomer, alchemist, Imam, Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, writer, philosopher, physician, physicist and scientist. He was also the teacher of the famous chemist, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), and of Abū Ḥanīfa, the founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. He never wanted be a famous man and only shared his knowledge with those who sought knowledge. Some researchers consider his teachings the root cause of the Renaissance.

Positions on the Mahdi: The Mahdi, according to Shiites, will bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth after an apocalyptic battle between the forces of Islam (those who believe in God) and the rest of the world. Sunni Muslims also accept Mahdi and his worldwide leadership as Caliph of God on Earth at end of world, but do not accept the Shiite teaching that this person is the twelfth Imam. There is a famous Hadith from Mohammed that the Mahdi in hiding is like sun behind cloud, he is hidden from people but people receive his benefits.

Shiite Muslims say some faithful believers have a connection with Mahdi and use his knowledge. At least 1000 persons have claimed to have had a connection and conversation with Mahdi during his period of hiding, but anyone who may have a relation with Mahdi should keep it secret and not declare it in public until death.

Seafood Consumption: Most schools of Sunni Islam permit the eating of any form of seafood. Shiites prohibit the consumption of any seafood which does not accord with the Old Testament requirement of having "fins and scales".

Some think that the splitting between Suniis and Shiites is due to conflict on Imamat. shia Muslims say Imamat is one pillar of Islam and leader can be selected only by God and sunni say Imamt is not part of Islam and leader can be selected by any method like shura or will of past Caliph (like for Omar).

Shia and Sunni have mostly same beliefs and both believe in fundamental beliefs of Islam. Today there is up to 260 sects in Islam that are in two main categories of shia and sunni.

the conflict of shia and sunni has been always amplified by world Imperialism to prevent Islam from gaining power.

Shia believes in Allah, prophet and all fundamentals of Islam.

Shia pray 5 times a day but usually do the 2, 3 and 4, 5 pray together and so may seem they do only 3 pray a day. there is some differences in details of pray like genuflect (for shia should be on a stone or part of earth and for sunni on carpet or floor ).

shia believes Imamat is one of five pillars of Islam and leader can be selected only by God. shia believe after death of prophet God selected the successive for prophet who is the political leader of Muslim community and people can not and does not the right to selected it.

Shia believes the Caliph (Representative of God in earth) is selected only by God and can not be selected by people because God said in Koran: "Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority" (Quran 2:30) or "O David! We did indeed make thee a vicegerent on earth" (Quran 38:26) also other verses.

Shia believes such verses means only God can select an Islamic political leader (Caliph).

In Shia Islam Caliphs after prophet are 12 Imams and all of them are the same and have no mistake and have the knowledge of everything (not absolute knowledge like knowledge of God) and they hear all sayings and even thinks of all humans after even after their death by permission of God and they are intermediates between God and human Shia Muslims always support them and forgive their lives for them.

Shia Muslims do not consider selection of Abubakr as Caliph by people valid because God did not select him. They believe God ordered prophet to declare people that Ali is selected as successor of prophet and prophet did this mission many times during his prophet-hood and mainly in Ghadir event after last Hajj of his life at a 3-4 hour speech in front of 120,000 Muslims at Ghadir in hot desert after 2 days stop of long caravan for gathering and 3 days after speech for congratulations and homage of Muslims to Ali. Islam at that time had high power in world and Some companions had high interest in leadership position after prophet. Muslims knew that it is the final Hajj of prophet (predicted by prophet) and were going along with prophet to hear what prophet says at end of his life. Shia believes Ghadir event is the most important event of Islam and is mentioned in Koran in many verses like "Today" (اليوم) in verse 5:3 of Quran is the day of Ghadir. Or Verse 5:67 (O Messenger! proclaim the (message) which hath been sent to thee from thy Lord. If thou didst not, thou wouldst not have fulfilled and proclaimed His mission. And Allah will defend thee from men (who mean mischief). For Allah guideth not those who reject Faith) is revealed at Ghadir day and is about declaring political leadership of Ali after prophet.

Both Sunni and Shia Muslims accept happening of Ghadir event But different interpret. Some Sunni writers tried to reject the event of Ghadir as declare of leadership of Ali and said at Ghadir prophet only wanted to say Ali is my friend and no one should bother him. Ali had 3 different missions to Yemen by prophet during 10 years and in 2 of them some companions of prophet had some conflicts with Ali and and prophet said some sayings about Ali to solve conflicts and some sunni writers have mixed stories of missions of Ali to Yemen with story of Ghadir to prove Ghadir event is not about Leadership of Ali and is not important.

Shia scholars believe some Sunni writers have changed and deviated historical evidences about political leadership of Ali in old historical books and republished them to destroy evidences of leadership of Ali from old Sunni books.

The famous Shia book Al-Ghadir (الغدير) by Allameh Amini is a collection of evidences and proofs for Ghadir Events written after referring to 100,000 Sunni books and full reading of 10,000 sunny books. Allameh Amini is a famous Shia scholar and spent 40 years of his life in travelling to access original old Sunni books in libraries in different countries to write this 20 volume book only from Sunni books and not using any Shia book. Some Sunni scholars tried to reply this book but then said if we want to reply this book we should first destroy all books of ourselves.

Shia doctrine have root in Karbala tragedy. When tragedy of Karbala happened most of Iranians understood there is two different kinds of Islam and after happening of Karbala tragedy most of Iranians became followers of "Ahl al-Bayt" and forgive their lives for them like what they did in Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War. Shia Muslims have at least 120,000 Hadith (saying) from The Fourteen Infallibles that is the base of Shia Islam along with Quran. Shia believes according to " Hadith of the two weighty things" The Fourteen Infallibles are the only valid interpreters of Quran and sayings of them are from God because they are Representative of God in earth and they do not say anything from themselves. Shia believes 12th of them (Mahdi) is alive and because people have killed all 11 Imams before him, he is in hide like Jesus and will come out of hide toghether with Jesus when people become ready and want to accept his leadership. All 11 Imams have been killed and during their life thy all have been in prison or under hard control of government to not have any political action. They never had enough serious followers to can get political power. Among them only the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq was relatively free in his life to have only scientific activities (but banned from any political action) and so only he is known in west because he established university and had students from all over the world. Westerns know him as a polymath: an astronomer, alchemist, Imam, Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, writer, philosopher, physician, physicist and scientist. He was also the teacher of the famous chemist, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), and of Abū Ḥanīfa, the founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. He never wanted be a famous man and only shared his knowledge with who wanted to learn. Some researchers consider his teachings the root cause of renaissance.

Sunni Muslims also accept Mahdi and his worldwide leadership as Caliph of God in earth at end of world. There is a famous Hadith from prophet Muhammad (PBUH) that Mahdi at hide is like sun behind cloud, he is hidden from people but people receive his benefits. Shia Muslims say some faithful believers have connection with Mahdi and use his knowledge. Shia Muslims believe that it is proved at least 1000 persons have had connection and talk with Mahdi during his hide period but Any one having relation with Mahdi keep it and does not declare it in public until is alive.

• Despite the differences mentioned above. It is to be recognized the differences between Sunnis and Shiites never been as the differences between the Catholics and the Orthodox and the Protestant or other Christian denominations.

• Neiher the Sunnis have the right to expel any Shiite out of true Islam nor the Shiites have the right expel any Sunni out of true Islam so far:

• he/she witness that there is no god Except one God (Allah), who has no partner, no son, no father, no companion, no associate, and no equivalence and he/she witness that Muhammad (peace be upon him) is God prophet and messenger to whom God revealed the holy book Qur'an through the angel Jibril (or Gabriel), and
• he/she doesn't deny intentionally any of the basic five pillars of Islam as instructed by prophet Muhammad; peace be upon him; even if they added other pillars to them.

As for Sunnis and Shiites, they, both:

• believe that there is no god except the one and only one God, the Creator with no partner, no father, no son, no companion, and no resemblance, and that the prophet is His messenger.
• believe in God's Angels, all Prophets sent from God, all of God's holy books, the Day of Judgment, and destiny.
• believe in the five Pillars of Islam.
• face the direction of Kaaba when praying.
• pray in any mosque regardless of whether the prayer leader is Sunni or Shi'ite. They may differ in some minor details of rituals but these details are not critical to neither the Shiites nor the Sunnis.

All Muslims; although differ in minor side issues; are one unity and will never follow the exterior plans of the non Muslims who try their best to create conflicts among them to have stronger control on their mineral and energy resources and to brig them under their will and directions.

shiah believed in five principles such as prophecy , divine unity , ressurrection , imamah or successors of the prophet and divine justice . it is only in the imamah and divine justice that shia and sunni differ . in the question of the imamate , it is the insistence on the esoteric function of the imam that distinguishes the shiite perspective from the sunni .

in the question of justice it is the emphasis upon this attribute as an intrinsic quality of the divine nature that is particular to shiism . we might say that in the esoteric formulation of Sunni theology,especially as contained in Ash arism , there is an emphasis upon the will of God.whatever god will is just precisely because it is willed by god . and intelligence is a sense subordinated to this will and to the voluntarism which characterizes this form of theology.

in shiism the quality of justice is considered as innate to the divine nature .god cannot act in an unjust manner because it is his nature to be just .fa , him to be unjust would violate his own nature , Which is impossible .intelligence can judge the justness and unjustness of an act and this judgment is not completely suspended in favor of a pure voluntarism on the part of god . hence there is a greater emphasis upon intelligence in shiite theology and great enphasis upon will in scorn kalam ,or theology , at least in predominant asharite school .

shiism also differs sunnusm in its consideration of the means whereby the original message of the Quranic revelation reached the islamic community and thereby in certain aspects of the sacred history of Islam .there is no disagreement on the Quran and the prophet ., that is , on what constitutes the origin of the islamic religion .the difference in view begins in the period immediately following the death of the prophet .one might say that the personality of the prophet contained two dimensions which later to become crystallized into Sunnism and Shiism .each of these two schools was later to reflect back upon the life and the personality of the prophet solely from its own point of view ,thus living aside and forgetting and misconstruing the other dimension ecluded from its own perspective .for shiism the dry(in the alchemical sense) and austere aspect of the prophets personality as reflected in his successors in the Sunni world was equated with worldliness while his warm and compassionate dimension was emphasized as his whole personality and as the essence of the nature of the immams who were considered to be a continuation of him .for the vast majority of the islamic community the companions of the prophet represent the prophet's heritage and the channel through which his messge was transmitted to later generations .within the early community the companions occupied a favored position and among them the first four caliphs stood out as a distinct group .it is through the companions that the saying( Hadith ) and the manner of the living ( sunnah )of the prophet were transmited to the second generations of Muslims . shiism however concentrating on the question of the wilayah and insisting on the esoteric content of the prophetic message , saw in the Ali and the household of the prophet (ahi al -bayt),in its shiiate sense the sole channel through which the original message og islam was transmitted , although , paradoxically enough the majorty of descendants of the prophet beong to Sunnism and continue to do so untill today

All the five legal schools agree that there are three kinds of Hajj: tamattu`, qiran, and ifrad. They also agree that by Hajj al-tamattu` is meant performance of the acts of the `Umrah during the months of the Hajj. The acts of the Hajj itself are performed after getting through the `Umrah. They also agree that by Hajj al‑'ifrad is meant performing the Hajj first and then, after getting through the acts of the Hajj, getting into the state of ihram for performing the `Umrah and its related acts.

According to the Imamiyyah school, the Hajjal-qiran and Hajj al‑'ifrad are one and the aqiran brings the hady at the time of assuming the ihram. Then it is obligatory upon him to offer what he has brought. But one who performs the Hajj al‑'ifrad has essentially no obligation to offer the hady.

In brief, the Imamiyyah do not consider it permissible to interchange two different ihram's,1or to perform the Hajj and the `Umrah with a single niyyah (intention) under any condition; but the other legal schools permit it in Hajjal-qiran. They say that it has been named `al‑qiran'because it involves union between the Hajj and the `Umrah. But the Imamiyyah say that it is because of the additional feature of the hady accompanying the pilgrim at the time of ihram.

According to the Imamiyyah school, Hajjal-tamattu` is obligatory upon one living at a distance of over forty‑eight miles from Mecca, and he may not choose any other kind except in emergency. The Hajj al-qiran and Hajj al‑'ifrad are performable by the people of Mecca and those living around it within a distance of forty‑eight miles, and it is not permissible for them to perform except one of these two kinds. The Imamiyyah base their argument on this verse of the Qur'an:

فَمَنْ تَمَتَّعَ بِالْعُمْرَةِ إِلَى الْحَجِّ فَمَا اسْتَيْسَرَ مِنَ الْهَدْيِ فَمَنْ لَمْ يَجِدْ فَصِيَامُ ثَلَاثَةِ أَيَّامٍ فِي الْحَجِّ وَسَبْعَةٍ إِذَا رَجَعْتُمْ تِلْكَ عَشَرَةٌ كَامِلَةٌ ذَٰلِكَ لِمَنْ لَمْ يَكُنْ أَهْلُهُ حَاضِرِي الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ

…if any one wishes to continue the 'umra on to the hajj, He must make an offering, such as he can afford, but if he cannot afford it, He should fast three days during the hajj and seven days on his return, Making ten days in all. This is for those whose household is not in (the precincts of) the Sacred Mosque…..(2:196)

Moreover, according to the Imamiyyah school, it is not permissible for one obliged to perform the Hajjal-tamattu` to change over to something else, except for the problem of shortage of time available, or, in the case of women, due to impending menses. In those cases it is permissible to change either to al‑qiran or al‑'ifrad on condition that the `Umrah is performed after the Hajj. The limit of the shortage of time is failure to be present at the wuquf in `Arafat until noon.

Mawaqit al‑'Ihram

The ihram is compulsory for all the various kinds of Hajj as well as' `Umrah, and is regarded as their basic element (rukn) by the Imamiyyah, and as obligatory by other schools. All the five schools agree that the miqat of the people of al‑Madinah from where they assume ihram is Masjid al‑Shajarah, also known as Dhu al‑Hulayfah; 1for the pilgrims of al‑Sham (which includes the Syrians, the Lebanese, the Palestinians and the Jordanians, noting further that the routes have changed from what they used to be in the past), Morocco and Egypt the miqat is al‑Juhfah;2for the pilgrims of Iraq, it is al‑`Aqiq;3for those from Yemen and others who take the same route, it is Yalamlam. 4

According to the Imamiyyah, Qarn al‑Manazil 5is the miqat for the people of al‑Ta'if and those who take their route towards Makkah. But according to the four Sunni schools, it is the miqat of the people of Najd. The miqat for those from Najd and Iraq according to the Imamiyyah is al‑`Aqiq. All the legal schools agree that these mawaqit also apply to those who in their journey take similar routes, even though they may not be natives of those regions.

For instance, if a Syrian starts on Hajj from al‑Madinah, it is permissible for him to assume ihram from Dhu al‑Hulayfah; if he starts on Hajj from Yemen, his miqat is Yalamlam; if from Iraq, then al‑`Aqiq, and so on. If one does not pass the mentioned mawaqit on his route, the miqat for him is the place parallel to any one of them.

If someone lives at a place nearer to Makkah than any of the prescribed mawaqit, then he assumes ihram from the place of his residence. For, someone who resides in Makkah itself, his miqat is Makkah. For one performing the al‑`Umrat al‑mufradah, the mawaqit, according to the Imamiyyah, are the same as for the Hajj.

Ihram Before Miqat

The four Sunni legal schools agree on the permissibility of assuming ihram before the point of miqat, but disagree as to which has greater merit. According to Malik and Ibn Hanbal, ihram before miqat is more meritorious (afdal). According to Abu Hanifah, the merit lies in assuming ihram while starting the Hajj journey from one's town: Two opinions are ascribed to al‑Shafi'i in this regard.

However, according to the Imamiyyah school, ihram before miqat is not permissible except for one who intends to perform the `Umrah in the month of Rajab and is afraid of missing it if ihram is delayed until miqat is reached, and for one who makes a vow (nadhr) to assume ihrambefore the miqat. (al‑Tadhkirah, Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

Ihram after Miqat

There is consensus among all the legal schools that it is not permissible to cross the miqat without ihram, and one who does so must return to the miqat for assuming ihram. If he does not return, according to the four Sunni schools, his Hajj is correct though he should offer a hadyin atonement. But if there be any impediment, such as fear of insecurity on the way or shortage of time, there is no sin. This, regardless of whether there are other mawaqit before him on his path or not.

According to the Imamiyyah, if he has deliberately neglected to assume ihram at the miqat while intending to perform the Hajj or the `Umrah, if he does not turn back to the miqat, there being no other miqat before him from which he can assume ihram, his ihram and Hajj are invalid, whether he had a valid pretext for not returning or not.

But if his failure to assume ihram at miqat was on account of forgetfulness or ignorance, if it is possible to return, he must do so; but if it is not possible, then from the next miqat before him. Otherwise he ought to assume ihramas far as possible outside the haram of Makkah, or within it; though the former is preferable. (al‑Tadhkirah, al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah)

Ihram before the Hajj Months

According to the Imamiyyah and Shafi'i schools, the ihrambefore the months of the Hajj is invalid if assumed with the purpose of Hajj, though it is valid when assumed for the purpose of the `Umrah. They cite in this regard the Qur'anic verse:

الْحَجُّ أَشْهُرٌ مَعْلُومَاتٌ

The pilgrimage is (performed in) the well-known months…(2:197):

But according to the Hanafi, Maliki and Hanbali schools, it is permissible with karahah. (al‑Tadhkirah, Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

The Mustahabbat of Ihram

There is no disagreement among the legal schools with respect to the ihram being an essential rukn of the `Umrah and all the three forms of the Hajj, namely, tamattu; qiran and ifrad. Also, there is no difference of opinion that ihram is the first act of the pilgrim, irrespective of whether his purpose is `Umrah mufradah, or any of the three forms of Hajj. There are certain wajibat and mustahabbat related to the ihram.

The legal schools agree that it is mustahabb for anyone intending ihram to cleanse his body, clip his fingernails, shorten his moustaches, and to take a bath (even for women undergoing hayd or nifas, for the aim is cleanliness). It is also mustahabb for one intending Hajj to abstain from cutting the hair of his head from the beginning of the month of Dhu al‑Qi'dah, to remove the hair from his body and armpits, and to enter ihram after the zuhr (noon) or any other obligatory prayers. It is also mustahabb to pray six, four or at least two raka`at. However, freedom from the state of ritual impurity (hadath) is not a condition for the ihram to be valid.

According to the Hanafi and Maliki schools, if water is not available, one is relieved of the duty to take the bath (ghusl), and tayammum as an alternative is not permissible. According to the Hanbali and Shafi'i schools, tayammum substitutes ghusl. The Imamiyyah jurists differ on this matter, some consider it permissible, others not.

According to the Imamiyyah school, it is mustahabb to leave the hair of the head uncut, but according to the Shafi'i, Hanafi and Hanbali schools, it is mustahabb to shave the head. (al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah)

According to the Hanafi school, it is sunnah for one who wants to assume ihram to scent his body and clothes with a perfume whose trace does not remain after ihram except the smell. According to the Shafi'i school, it is sunnah, except when one is fasting, to apply perfume to the body after the bath. Also, perfuming the clothes does not matter. According to the Hanbali school, one may perfume the body; and the clothes with karahah. (al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba `ah)

According to the Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi'i schools, it is mustahabb for the muhrim to pray two raka'atbefore assuming ihram after the noon prayer or any other obligatory prayer. If he has no obligatory prayer to make at the time of ihram, he should offer six, or four or at least two raka`at for the ihram. (al‑Jawahir)

Al‑ 'Ishtirat

Al‑Muhaqqiq al‑Hilli, the Imamiyyah scholar, in his work Tadhkirat al‑fuqaha', says that for one intending ihram it is mustahabb to make a condition with God at the time of assuming ihram, by saying:

اللهم اني أريد ماأمرتني به، فإن منعتني مانعٌ عن تمامه وحبسني عنه حابسٌ فجعلني في حل.

O God, indeed I wish to fulfill Thy command, but if any impediment keeps me from completing it or a barrier obstructs me from it, exonerate me.

Abu Hanifah, al‑Shafi'i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal also consider it mustahabb. However, this ishtirat does not help in relieving one of the obligations of the Hajj if he were to encounter an impediment which keeps him from getting through it.

The Wajibat of Ihram

The wajibat of ihram, with some difference between the legal schools on some points, are three: niyyah(intention); talbiyah; and putting on of the clothes of ihram.

Al‑Niyyah

Obviously niyyah or intention is essential to every voluntary act; for every such act is motivated by conscious intent. Therefore, some scholars have pointed out that had we been assigned a duty to be performed without intention it would have been impossible to be carried out. However, when the question of intention is raised in relation to the pilgrim (of the Hajj or the `Umrah), what is meant is whether he becomes muhrim solely on account of the niyyah or if something else is required in addition, acknowledging that ihram is void if assumed frivolously or absent‑mindedly.

According to the Hanafi school, ihram is not considered to commence solely with intention unless it is accompanied by the utterance of the talbiyah (Fath al‑qadir).According to the Shafi'i, Imamiyyah and Hanbali schools, the ihram is assumed merely by niyyah (al‑Jawahir, Fiqh al‑Sunnah). The Imamiyyah add that it is obligatory for the niyyah to coincide with the commencement of ihram, and it is not sufficient for the act of niyyah to occur in the course of assuming ihram.

Also while making the niyyah it is essential to specify the purpose of ihram, whether it is Hajj or `Umrah, whether it is Hajj al‑tamattu; Hajj al‑qiran or Hajj al‑'ifrad, whether he is performing the Hajj for himself or as a na'ib of someone else, whether for the obligatory Hajj (Hijjat al‑'Islam) or for something else. If one assumes ihram without specifying these particulars, postponing their determination to future, the ihram is invalid. (al‑`Urwat al‑wuthqa).

According to the Hanafi text al‑Mughni, "It is mustahabb to specify the purpose of ihram. Malik is of the same opinion. Two opinions are ascribed to al‑Shafi'i. According to one of them, it is adequate if one assumes ihram with a general, non‑specific purpose of pilgrimage... without determining the exact purpose, whether Hajj or `Umrah. The ihram thus assumed is valid and makes one a muhrim.... Afterwards, he may select any of the kinds of pilgrimage." All the five schools agree that if one assumes ihram with the intention to follow another person's intention, his ihram is valid if the other person's purpose is specific. (al‑Jawahir; al‑Mughni)

The Talbiyah

That the talbiyah is legitimate in ihram is acknowledged by all the five schools, but they disagree as to its being wajib or mustahabb, and also about its timing. According to the Shafi`i and Hanbali schools, it is sunnah, preferably performed concurrently with ihram. However, if the intention to assume ihram is not accompanied by talbiyah, the ihram is correct.

According to the Imamiyyah, Hanafi, 6[28] and Maliki schools, the talbiyah is obligatory, though they differ about its details. According to the Hanafi school, pronouncement of talbiyah or its substitute‑‑such as tasbih, or bringing along of the sacrificial animal (al‑hady)‑‑is a provision for ihram to be valid. According to the Maliki school, the ihram neither becomes invalid if talbiyahis recited after a long gap of time, nor if it is not pronounced altogether. However, one who fails to pronounce it must offer a blood sacrifice.

According to the Imamiyyah, neither the ihram for Hajj al‑tamattu; nor Hajj al‑'ifrad, nor their conjugate `umrahs, nor for al‑`Umratal‑mufradah, is valid without talbiyah. However, one who intends to perform Hajj al‑qiran may choose between. talbiyah, ish'ar7or taqlid; ish'ar for this school being exclusively restricted to a camel, though taqlid may apply to a camel or the other forms of hady.

The Formula of Talbiyah

لبيك اللهم لبيك، لا شريك لك لبيك، إن الحمد والنعمة لك والملك لا شريك لك

All the legal schools agree that taharah is not a proviso for pronouncing talbiyah. (al‑Tadhkirah).

As to its occasion, the muhrim starts reciting it from the moment of ihram, being mustahabb for him to continue it‑‑all the five schools agree‑‑until the ramy of Jamarat al‑`aqabah. To utter it loudly is mustahabb for men (not for women), except in mosques where prayers are offered in congregation, particularly in the Mosque of `Arafat. According to the Imamiyyah school, it is mustahabbto discontinue reciting the talbiyah on sighting the houses of Makkah. A woman may recite the talbiyah just aloud enough to be heard by herself or someone near her. It is also mustahabb to proclaim blessings on the Prophet and his Family (s). (al‑Tadhkirah; Fiqhal‑Sunnah).

The Muhrim's Dress

All the five schools agree that it is not permissible for a muhrim man to wear stitched clothing, shirts or trousers, nor may he cover his face. Also, it is not permissible for him to wear shoes (khuffan) except when he cannot find a pair of sandals (na`lan), 8and that after removing the covering on the back of the heels from the base. A woman, however, should cover her head, keep her face exposed, except when she fears that men may ogle at her.

It is not permissible for her to wear gloves, but she may put on silk and wear shoes (khuffan). According to Abu Hanifah, it is permissible for a woman to wear gloves. (al‑Tadhkirah; Ibn Rushd's al‑Bidayah wa al‑nihayah).

The book al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah, under the heading `That which is required of one intending ihrambefore he starts to assume it', states, "According to the Hanafi school, among other things he wears izar (loin‑cloth) and rida' (cloak). The izar covers the lower part of the body from the navel to the knees. The rida' covers the back, the chest and the shoulders, and its wearing is mustahabb.

According to the Maliki school, it is mustahabb to wear izar, rida and na`lan; but there is no restriction on wearing something else that is not stitched and does not encircle any of the parts of the body.

According to the Hanbali school, it is sunnah to put on a new, white and clean rida' and izar together with a pair of na`lan before assuming ihram. According to the Shafi`i school, the rida' and izar should be white, new or washed ones.

According to the Imamiyyah school, the rida' and the izar are obligatory, preferably (istihbaban) of white cotton. The muhrim may put on more than these two pieces of clothing on condition that they are not stitched. Also it is permissible to change the clothes in which one commenced ihram, though it is better to perform the tawaf in the same rida' and izar as worn at the beginning.

All the require­ments of the dress for salat apply to the dress of ihram, such as taharah, its being non‑silken for men, not made of the skin of an animal eating whose flesh is not permissible. According to some Imamiyyah legists, clothing made of skin is not permissible (in salat and ihram).

In any case, the disagreement between the legal schools about the muhrim's dress is very limited. This is well indicated by the fact that whatever is regarded as permissible by the Imamiyyah is also considered permissible by the remaining schools.

Restrictions of Ihram

There are certain restrictions for the muhrim, most of which are discussed below.

Marriage

According to the Imamiyyah, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools, it is not permissible for the muhrim to contract marriage for himself or on behalf of another. Also he may not act as another's agent for concluding a marriage contract, and if he does, the contract is invalid.

Furthermore, according to the Imamiyyah school, he may not act as a witness to such a contract.

According to Abu Hanifah, marriage contract is permissible and the contract concluded is valid.

According to the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi`i and Imamiyyah schools, it is permissible for the muhrim to revoke divorce of his former wife during the period of her `iddah. According to the Hanbali school, it is not permissible. From the viewpoint of the Imamiyyah, if one enters a marriage contract with the knowledge of its prohibition, the woman becomes haram for him for life merely by the act of concluding the contract, even if the marriage is not consummated. But if done in ignorance of the interdiction, she is not prohibited to him, even if consummation has been affected. (al‑Jawahir Fiqh al‑Sunnah; al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah).

Intercourse

All the five legal schools agree that it is not permissible for the muhrim to have sexual intercourse with his wife, or to derive any kind of sexual pleasure from her. If he performs intercourse before tahlil9(i.e. relief from the state of ihram) his Hajj becomes void, although he must perform all its acts to the conclusion. Thereafter, he must repeat the Hajj the next year, performing it `separately' from his spouse. 10The seclusion is obligatory according to the Imamiyyah, Maliki and Hanbali schools, and voluntary from the viewpoint of the Shafi'i and Hanafi schools. (al‑Hada'iq; Fiqh al‑Sunnah).

Moreover, according to the Imamiyyah, Shafi'i, and Maliki schools, besides the fact that his Hajj becomes invalid, he must sacrifice a camel in atonement, and according to the Hanafi school, a sheep.

All the five legal schools agree that if he commits intercourse after the first tahlil (i.e. after the halq or taqsir in Mina, after which everything except intercourse‑‑and also perfume according to the Imamiyyah school‑‑become permissible for the pilgrim), his Hajj is not void, nor is he called upon to repeat it. Nevertheless, he must offer a camel, according to the Imamiyyah and Hanafi schools and according to one of the two opinions ascribed to al‑Shafi'i. But according to the Maliki school, he is obliged to offer a sheep only. (al‑Hada'iq; Fiqh al‑Sunnah).

If the wife yields willingly to intercourse, her Hajj is also void, and she must sacrifice a camel in expiation and repeat the Hajj the year after. But if she was forced, then nothing is required of her, but the husband is obliged to offer two camels: one on his own behalf, and the second on hers. If the wife was not in the state of ihram, but the husband was, nothing is required of her, nor is she did not oblige to offer anything in atonement, nor is anything required of the husband on her account. (al‑Tadhkirah).

If the husband kisses his wife, his Hajj is not void if it does not result in ejaculation. On this all schools are in agreement. But according to the four Sunni schools, he is obliged to make a sacrificial offering in atonement even if it be a sheep. The Imamiyyah author of al‑Tadhkirah says, the sacrifice of a camel is obligatory only if the kiss is taken with sexual desire, otherwise he should sacrifice only a sheep. If he ejaculates, the Hajj is void according to the Maliki school, but remains valid according to the other schools, although he should make an offering in atonement, which is a camel according to the Hanbali school and a group of Imamiyyah legists, and a sheep according to the Shafi'i' and Hanafi schools. (al‑Hada'iq; al‑Mughni).

Use of Perfume

All the legal schools agree that the muhrim, man or woman, may not make use of any perfume, either for smelling, or for applying on himself, or for scenting edibles. Indeed it is not permissible to wash the dead body of a muhrim, or to perform hunut upon it by applying camphor or any other kind of perfumery. If the muhrim uses perfume forgetfully or on account of ignorance, he needs not make any offering in atonement according to the Imamiyyah and Shafi'i schools. But according to the Hanafi and Maliki schools, he must make a sacrificial offering (fidyah). In this relation two different opinions are ascribed to Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

However, when one is forced to use perfume on account of disease, it is permissible and no fidyah is required. According to the Imamiyyah school, if one uses perfume intentionally, he must offer a sheep, irrespective of the use, whether applied to the body or eaten. However, there is nothing wrong in the Khaluq of Ka'bah even if it contains saffron, and the same applies to fruits and aromatic plants. (al‑Jawahir).

Use of Kohl

Al‑Tadhkirah states: "There is consensus among the Imamiyyah legists on the point that darkening the eyelids with kohl or applying a kohl containing perfume is not permissible for the muhrim, man or woman. Apart from that (i.e. ihram) it is permissible." According to the author of al‑Mughni, "Kohl containing antimony is makruh, and does not require any fidyah. I haven't come across any different opinion on this topic. However, there is no karahah in use of kohl without antimony, as long as it does not contain any perfume."

Shortening of Nails and Hair; Cutting of Trees

All the five legal schools agree about impermissibility of shortening the nails and shaving or shortening of the hair of the head or the body in the state of ihram, fidyah being required of the offender. 11As to cutting of trees and plants within the haram, all the legal schools agree that it is impermissible to cut or uproot anything grown naturally without human mediation.

Al‑Shafi'i' states that there is no difference between the two with regard to the prohibition, and fidyah is required for both: cutting of a big tree requires fidyah of a cow, and of other plants of a sheep. According to Malik, cutting of a tree is a sin, though nothing is required of the offender, regardless of whether it has grown with or without human mediation.

According to the Imamiyyah, Hanafi, and Hanbali schools, cutting of something planted by human hands is permissible and does not require a fidyah; but anything grown by nature requires fidyah, which is a cow according to the Imamiyyah for cutting a big tree and a sheep for cutting smaller plants. According to the Hanafi school, the owner of the tree is entitled to a payment equivalent to the cost of the hady. (Fiqh al‑Sunnah, al‑Lum`ah)

All the five schools agree that there is no restriction for cutting a dry tree or for pulling out withered grass.

Looking into a Mirror

It is not permissible for a muhrim to look into a mirror, and all the five schools agree that there is no fidyah for doing so. However, there is no restriction on looking into water.

Use of Henna

According to the Hanafi school, it is permissible for the muhrim, man or woman, to dye with henna any part of his body, except the head. According to the Shafi`i school, it is permissible, with. the exception of hands and feet. According to the Hanafi school, dyeing is not permissible for the muhrim,man or woman. (Fiqh al‑Sunnah)The predominant view among the Imamiyyah legists is that dyeing is makruh not haram.(al‑Lum`ah)

Use of Shade; Covering the Head

All the five schools agree that it is not permissible for the muhrim man to cover his head voluntarily. According to the Maliki and Imamiyyah schools, it is not permissible for him to immerse himself under water until the head is completely submerged, although it is permissible for him, all the five schools except the Shafi'i agree, to wash his head or pour water over it. The Malikis say that with the exception of the hands it is not permissible to remove dirt by washing. If he covers the head forgetfully, nothing is required of him according to the Imamiyyah and Shafi'i schools, but a fidyah is required according to the Hanaf i school.

All the schools, with the exception of the Shafi'i, agree that it is impermissible for the muhrim to shade himself while moving. Neither it is permissible for him to ride an automobile, an aeroplane or the like, which are covered by a roof. But it is permissible while walking to pass under a shadow.12

Stitched Clothing and Ring

All the five schools agree that it is forbidden for the muhrim man to wear stitched clothes and clothes which encircle body members, e.g. turban, hat and the like. These are permissible for women, with the exception of gloves and clothes which have come into contact with perfume. According to the Imamiyyah school, if the muhrim wears stitched clothes forgetfully, or in ignorance of the restriction, nothing is required of him. But if one wears them intentionally to protect himself from heat or cold, he should offer a sheep. Also according to them it is not permissible to wear a ring for adornment, but it is permissible for other purposes. Also, it is not permissible for woman to wear jewellery for the sake of adornment.

`Fusuq' and Jidal'

God, the most Exalted, says in the Quran:

…فَلَا رَفَثَ وَلَا فُسُوقَ وَلَا جِدَالَ فِي الْحَجِّ ۗ…

....There should be no obscenity, neither impiety, nor disputing in Hajj ....' (2:197).

In the above verse, the meaning of `rafath' is taken to be sexual intercourse, to which reference has been made earlier. `Fusuq' is taken to mean lying, cursing, or commission of sins. In any case, all of them are forbidden for the pilgrims of Hajj and the non‑pilgrims as well. The stress here is meant to emphasize abstention from them in the state of ihram. The meaning of jidal' is quarrelling. According to an Imamiyyah tradition from al‑'Imam al‑Sadiq (`a), he is reported to have said, "It (i.e. jidal' in the above‑mentioned verse) means using such expressions as `Yes, by God!' or `No, by God!' in conversation. This is the lowest degree of jidal"

According to the Imamiyyah school, if the muhrim tells a lie for once, he must offer a sheep; if twice, a cow; if thrice, a camel. And if he swears once taking a veritable oath, there is nothing upon him; but if he repeats it three times, he is obliged to sacrifice a sheep.

Cupping (Hijamah)

All the five schools agree on permissibility of cupping in case of necessity, and the four Sunni schools permit it even when not necessary as long as it does not require removal of hair. The Imamiyyah legists disagree on this issue; some of them permit it and others not. (al‑Tadhkirah; al‑Fiqh `alaal‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah)

Hunting (al‑Sayd)

All the five schools are in agreement about the prohibition on hunting of land animals, either through killing or through dhabh, and also on guiding the hunter or pointing opt the game to him in the state of ihram. Also prohibited is meddling with their eggs and their young ones. However, hunting of the animals of water is permitted and requires no fidyah. This, in accordance with the Qur'anic verse:

أُحِلَّ لَكُمْ صَيْدُ الْبَحْرِ وَطَعَامُهُ مَتَاعًا لَكُمْ وَلِلسَّيَّارَةِ وَحُرِّمَ عَلَيْكُمْ صَيْدُ الْبَرِّ مَا دُمْتُمْ حُرُمًا وَاتَّقُوا اللَّهَ الَّذِي إِلَيْهِ تُحْشَرُونَ

Permitted to you isthe game of the sea and the food of it, as a provision for you and for the journeyers; but forbidden to you is the game ofthe land, so long as you remain in the state of ihram: and fear God, unto whom you shall be mustered. (5:96)

The prohibition on hunting within the precincts of the haram apply to the muhrim and the non‑muhrim(muhill) equally. However, outside the haram, the prohibition applies only to the muhrim. If the muhrimslaughters a game, it is considered maytah (a dead animal not slaughtered in accordance with ritual requirements), and its flesh is unlawful for all human beings. The five legal schools agree that the muhrim may kill a predatory bird called hada'ah, crows, mice and scorpions. Others include wild dogs and anything harmful.

According to the Imamiyyah and Shafi'i schools, if the game hunted on land resembles some domestic beast in shape and form (like the Oryx, which resembles the cow), he has the choice between:

(1) giving the meat of one of similar beasts of his livestock in charity after slaughtering it;

(2) estimating its price and buying food of the amount to be given in expiation and charity to the needy, distributing it by giving two mudds (the muddis a dry measure equal to 800 grams) to every individual;

(3) fasting, a day for every two mudds.

The Malikis hold the same viewpoint, except that, they add, the price of the hunted animal itself should be estimated, not that of its domestic equivalent. The Hanafis say that one who hunts in the state of ihram should arrange for the estimated price of the hunted animal, whether there is a domestic animal similar to it or not. When the price has been estimated, he is free to choose between:

(1) purchasing livestock of the money and giving its meat away in charity;

(2) giving it from his own livestock;

(3) purchasing food of the amount to be given away in charity;

(4) fasting, a day for every mudd of food to be given away. (al‑Tadhkirah; Fiqh al‑Sunnah)In this connection all the legal schools base their position on this Qur'anic verse:

يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تَقْتُلُوا الصَّيْدَ وَأَنْتُمْ حُرُمٌ وَمَنْ قَتَلَهُ مِنْكُمْ مُتَعَمِّدًا فَجَزَاءٌ مِثْلُ مَا قَتَلَ مِنَ النَّعَمِ يَحْكُمُ بِهِ ذَوَا عَدْلٍ مِنْكُمْ هَدْيًا بَالِغَ الْكَعْبَةِ أَوْ كَفَّارَةٌ طَعَامُ مَسَاكِينَ أَوْ عَدْلُ ذَٰلِكَ صِيَامًا لِيَذُوقَ وَبَالَ أَمْرِهِ عَفَا اللَّهُ عَمَّا سَلَفَ وَمَنْ عَادَ فَيَنْتَقِمُ اللَّهُ مِنْهُ وَاللَّهُ عَزِيزٌ ذُو انْتِقَامٍ

O believers, slay not the game while you are in the stateof ihram. Whosoever of you slays it wilfully, there shall be reparation‑‑the like of what he has slain, in livestock, as shall be judged by two men of equity among you, as offering on reaching the Ka`bah; or expiation‑‑food for poor persons or the equivalent of that in fasting, so that he may taste the mischief ofhis action. God has pardoned what is past; but whoever offends again, God will take vengeance on him; God is All‑mighty, Vengeful.(5:95)

The meaning of the phrase: يَحْكُمُ بِهِ ذَوَا عَدْلٍ in the above verse is that two equitable (`adil) witnesses should judge whether a certain domestic animal is similar to the hunted wild beast. The meaning of the phrase: هدياً بالغ الكعبة is that he should slaughter the equivalent livestock and give its meat in charity on arrival in Makkah.

According to the Imamiyyah work al‑Shara'i`, "Every muhrim who wears or eats anything forbidden for him should slaughter a sheep, regardless of whether his action was intentional, forgetful, or on account of ignorance."

Tawaf

Tawaf is an essential part (rukn) of `Umrah, and the tawaf al‑ziyarah (also called `tawaf al‑'ifadah') is a rukn of the Hajj al‑tamattu; Hajj al‑'ifrad and Hajj al‑qiran. As said earlier, the assumption of ihram is the first act of the pilgrim regardless of whether he comes for `Umrah mufradah or for any of the three types of Hajj.

Now, after the assuming of ihram, what is the next step for the pilgrim? Is it tawaf, or wuquf, or something else? The answer is: it depends on the purpose (niyyah) with which the pilgrim assumes ihram. If it is `Umrah, then the next step is tawaf, regardless of whether it is `Umrah mufradah or `Umrat al‑tamattu`' Thus tawaf is the second step for the mu'tamir (pilgrim intending `Umrah), by agreement of all the legal schools.

However, if the purpose of ihram is Hajj only‑‑such as in the case of pilgrim on Hajj al‑'ifrad, or one intending to perform the Hajj al‑tamattu` after getting through the acts of `Umrah‑‑the second step is (as shall be explained later) wuquf in `Arafat.

In other words, one who enters Makkah with the sole purpose of `Umrah or Hajj al‑tamattu` performs tawaf before everything else, then sa'y and then taqsir. After this, if on Hajj al‑tamattu`, he assumes ihram for a second time; but he is not required to perform another tawafafter this ihram. The tawaf (pertaining to the Hajj acts), as we shall explain, comes after getting through the wuquf at `Arafat and passage through Mina.

Kinds of `Umrah in View of the Ahl al‑Sunnah

The imams of the four Sunni schools distinguish between three kinds of tawaf:

1. Tawaf al‑Qudum

It is the tawaf performed by the `outsiders', (i.e. those coming from outside Makkah and from beyond its outskirts within a radius of 88 kms.) on entry into Makkah. It is similar to the two raka'at of salat performed as tahiyyat al‑masjid (lit. `greeting of the mosque'), and so is also called `tawaf al‑tahiyyah'' The four Sunni schools agree on its being mustahabb, and no penalty is required for default according to all except the Malikis who require a blood sacrifice.

2. Tawaf al‑Ziyarah

This tawaf (also called `tawaf al‑'ifadah')is performed by Hajj pilgrims after getting through the acts of Mina, the ramy of jamarat al‑`aqabah, the sacrifice (dhibh), and the halq or the taqsir.The pilgrim performs this tawaf on returning to Makkah. It is called `tawaf al‑ziyarah' because it is performed on the visit (ziyarah) to the Ka'bah after leaving Mina. It is called `tawaf al‑'ifadah' because the pilgrims pour forth (`ifadah' means `pouring forth') into Makkah from Mina. It is also called `tawaf al‑hajj' because by consensus of all the schools it is rukn of the Hajj.

After performing this tawaf all things become permissible for the (Sunni) Hajj pilgrim, even sexual intimacy with women. The Imamiyyah, who disagree, say that sex is not permitted before performing the sa'y between Safa and Marwah followed by a second tawaf, which they call `tawaf al‑nisa'.' This shall be further clarified presently.

3. Tawaf al‑Wada`

It is the last tawaf performed by the Hujjajbefore departing from Makkah. The Hanafi and Hanbali schools consider it obligatory, though all that is required of the defaulter is a sacrifice. The Malikis consider it mustahabband do not require any penalty for the default. Al‑Shafi'i has two opinions on this matter. (al‑Mughni, al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah, Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

Kinds of Tawaf from the Imamiyyah Viewpoint

The Shi`ah agree with the Sunni schools about the legitimacy of the above three kinds of tawaf, and regard the second tawaf i.e. tawaf al‑ziyarah as a rukn of the Hajj whose omission makes the Hajj invalid. 1However, the first kind, i.e. tawaf al‑qudum is considered mustahabb, and may be omitted. Regarding the third, i.e. tawaf al‑wada; they agree with the Ma1iki school in its being mustahabb, there being nothing on the defaulter.

However, the Shi`ah add another kind of tawaf to the above three, the tawaf al‑nisa', which they consider obligatory, its omission being impermissible in `Umrah mufradah as well as in all the three kinds of Hajj (i.e. tamattu; qiran, and ifrad). They do not permit its omission except in case of `Umrat al‑tamattu;considering the tawaf al‑nisa' performed during the course of Hajj al‑tamattu` as sufficient.

The schools of the Ahl al‑Sunnah state that there is no obligatory tawaf after the tawaf al‑ziyarah, after which sexual intimacy is permissible. The Shi'ah say that it is obligatory upon the pilgrim, after performing tawaf al‑ziyarah and the sa'y, to perform another tawaf, the tawaf al‑nisa; which derives its name precisely because of the sanction of permissibility of relations with women (nisa') following it.

They say that if the pilgrim defaults in regard to this tawaf, sexual relations are forbidden for man and woman (for men even the conclusion of marriage contract), unless he/she performs it in person or deputes another to perform it on his/her behalf; and if he/she dies without performing it or without deputing someone to do it for him/her, it is incumbent upon the heir (wali) to have it performed on the behalf of the dead person.

According to them, even in case of a mumayyiz child who fails to perform the tawaf al‑nisa' while performing the Hajj, even if he omits it by mistake or on account of ignorance, women are forbidden to him after adulthood nor he may conclude a marriage contract (`aqd) unless he performs it himself or deputes another for the job.

To summarize, the Shi`ah consider three tawaf's to be obligatory for the pilgrim on the Hajj al‑tamattu`: (1) the tawaf of the conjugate `Umrah, of which it is rukn;(2) the tawaf al‑ziyarah (or tawaf al‑hajj), which is a rukn of the Hajj; and (3) the tawaf al‑nisa', which is also an obligatory part of it, though not a rukn similar to the Surat al‑Fatihah in relation to the salat. The Ahl al‑Sunnah agree with the Shi`ah in all except tawaf al‑nisa; which they do not recognize. However, of a pilgrim on the Hajj al‑'ifrad or Hajj al‑qiran, only two tawaf's are required by the Shi`ah. 2

Entry into Makkah

All the schools agree that it is mustahabb for one entering Makkah to take a bath, pass through its heights during the approach towards the city, enter through Bab Bani Shaybah, raise his hands on sighting al‑Bayt al‑Haram, pronounce takbir and tahlil, and to recite whatever he can of certain prayers prescribed by tradition. The Malikis, however, disagree about the istihbab of raising the hands for the du'a'.

Thereafter, he approaches the Black Stone; if possible kisses it or caresses it with his hand or else just makes a gesture with his hand, and prays.

According to the Imamiyyah, it is mustahabb while entering the haram of Makkah to be barefooted, to chew the leaves of a plant called `adhkhir' used for refreshing the mouth, or to clean the mouth to purge its odour.

The Conditions (Shurut) of Tawaf

According to the Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools ritual purity (taharah, i.e. freedom from hadath and khabath) is required; thus the tawaf of one who is Junub or a woman undergoing hayd or nifas, is not valid. Also, it is necessary to cover one's private parts completely as in salat.

The author of the Fiqh al‑Sunnah (p. 154, 1955) says: "In the opinion of the Hanafis, freedom from hadath is not an essential requirement. However, it is an obligation whose omission may be compensated through a blood sacrifice. So, if one performs tawaf in the state of minor impurity (hadath asghar) his/her tawaf is valid, though one is required to sacrifice a sheep. If tawaf is performed in the state of janabah or hayd, 3the tawaf is valid, though the sacrifice of a camel is required during the pilgrim's stay in Makkah."

According to al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhdhib al‑'arba `ah(vol.I, p. 535, 1939): "The taharah of the clothes, the body, and the location of prayer (in salat) is (only) a highly recommended sunnah (sunnah mu'akkadah) from the Hanafi viewpoint; (this is true) even of tawaf, there being no penalty even if all the clothes are completely ritually unclean (najis)."

According to the Imamiyyah, taharah from hadathand khabath is a proviso for validity of an obligatory tawaf. In the same way, covering the private parts (satr al‑`awrah) with a ritually clean cloth legitimately owned (ghayr maghsub) is also a requirement. Moreover, it should not be made of silk or the skin of an animal whose flesh may not be eaten, nor made of golden fabric ‑‑requirements which are the same as for salat.

It may be said that the Imamiyyah are even more stringent with regard to tawaf than salat. They consider a blood spot of the size of a dirham as pardonable for one performing salat, but not for one performing tawaf.Further, they consider wearing of silk and gold as impermissible even for women during tawaf (which is permissible for women in salat). According to the Imamiyyah, circumcision is a requirement for tawaf without which it is invalid, both for an adult man and a child (al‑Jawahir, al‑Hada'iq).

The manner of Performing Tawaf

According to the Imamiyyah and Hanbali schools, the purpose or niyyah must be specified in every tawaf; but according to the Maliki, Shafi`i and Hanbali schools, a general niyyah for the Hajj is

sufficient and no separate niyyah for tawaf is required. (al‑Jawahir, Fiqh al‑Sunnah) As pointed out earlier, niyyah as a motive behind all voluntary actions is an inevitable and necessary matter; as such, debate and controversy regarding it is futile.

Ibn Rushd, in his Bidayat al‑mujahid, writes: "The Sunni legists are in consensus on the opinion that every tawafwhether obligatory or not, begins from the Black Stone (and according to the Fiqh al‑Sunnah ends thereat). The pilgrim, if he can, kisses it, otherwise touches it with his hand. Then, with the Ka'bah on his left, starts moving towards the right to make the seven circumambulations, walking with a moderately fast pace (ramal) during the first three rounds and with an ordinary pace during the last four rounds. (The ramal 4applies to the tawaf al‑qudum performed on entry into Makkah by the `Umrah and Hajj pilgrim, not one on Hajjal‑tamattu; also no ramal is required of women pilgrims). Then he kisses al‑Rukn al‑Yamani" (the south‑western corner or rukn of the Ka'bah which falls before the one with the Black Stone mounted on it during the anti‑clockwise rounds made during tawaf.‑‑Tr.).

According to the Imamiyyah, there are certain things obligatory (wajib) in tawaf they are as follows:

1. The niyyah, to which reference has already been made.

2. The tawaf should be made on foot, and in case of inability on a mount. Many Imamiyyah fuqaha' do not recognize this requirement and a group of them explicitly permit tawaf on a mount. They cite the precedent of the Prophet (s) who performed tawaf on camelback, according to traditions in al‑Kafi and Man la yahduruhu al faqih.

3. The condition that the tawaf should begin and end at the Black Stone is stated in this manner in many books of fiqh: "The tawaf should be begun at the Black Stone, so that the first part of one's body is in front of the first part of the Black Stone. Then the pilgrim begins moving with the Black Stone on his left, ending the last circumambulation exactly in line with the point where he commenced his first, thus ensuring that the seven rounds are completed without advancing or falling behind a single step or more.

The danger of advancing or falling behind necessitates that the first circumambulation should commence at the beginning of the Black Stone; because if begun in front of its middle, one cannot be sure of having advanced or fallen behind some steps; and if one began from its end, then the beginning may not be said to have commenced from the Black Stone ...." and so on and so forth.

The author of the Jawahir al‑kalam makes elaborate critical remarks about this kind of meticulousness, which show his balanced and moderate taste and temperament. This is the substance of what he has to say: "The difficulty and the exasperating haraj (impediment) inherent in realizing such a requirement is not concealed .... To give it consideration is to fall into silly scruples. The debate is similar to the depraved and unseemly musings of madmen. 5And it has been narrated of the Prophet (s) that he performed tawaf on camelback, and attaining this kind of precision is infeasible when on a mount."

That which can be understood from the remarks of the author of al‑Jawahir is that he agrees with the author of al‑Shara'i`, who confines himself to this statement, without adding another word: "It is obligatory to begin and end the tawaf at the Stone." It means-as is also apparent from his above‑mentioned remarks‑‑that in the opinion of the author of al‑Jawahir it is sufficient to fulfil this condition in the commonly understood sense. Al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim, in al‑Munsik, holds a similar position when he says, "The pilgrim performing tawaf should begin a little before the Stone with the intent of performing what is really obligatory. When he performs in this fashion he knows that he began at the Stone and finished thereat."

4. The Ka'bah must be on the left during tawaf. According to al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i, it is sufficient to realize this requirement in the commonly understood sense (i.e. without giving scrupulous attention to precision); slight shifts of direction do not matter as long as the movement meets the requirement in the ordinary sense. According to him the only crucial factor is satisfaction of the requirement in its ordinary sense.

5. The Hajar Isma'il must be included in tawaf. That is the circumambulation should be made around it and without entering it, 6and it should be kept to the left while making the tawaf. Thus if one passes between it and the Ka'bah during tawaf making it fall to his right, the tawaf becomes invalid.

6. The body should be completely out of the Ka'bah (because God says وَلْيَطَّوَّفُوا بِالْبَيْتِ الْعَتِيقِwhich means that tawaf should be made around and ‑outside the Ka'bah, not inside it). Also if one were to walk on its walls or on the protruding part of its walls' foundations, the tawaf would be invalid.

7. The tawaf should be performed between the Ka'bah and the rock called Maqam Ibrahim, which is a stone on which Abraham (`a) stood during the building of the Ka'bah.

8. The tawaf should consist of seven rounds, no more and no less. Obviously, recognition of these points requires an informed guide to indicate them to the pilgrims.

After finishing tawaf it is obligatory to offer two rak'ah's of salat behind the Maqam Ibrahim regardless of the crowd; but if it is not possible, one may offer the prayer in front of it, and if that, too, is not possible, anywhere in al‑Masjid al‑Haram. It is not permissible to begin a second tawaf without performing the two‑rak`ah prayer. If one forgets performing them, it is obligatory on him to return and perform them. But if returning were not feasible, he can offer them wherever he can. This is true of the obligatory tawaf. But if the tawaf were a mustahabb one, he can offer the two rak`ah's wherever he can. (al‑Tadhkirah, al‑Jawahir, al‑Hada'iq)

This shows that the jurists of all the legal schools are in agreement over certain points: the tawaf starts and ends at the Black Stone; the Ka'bah should be on the left during tawaf; the tawaf should be made outside the Ka'bah; seven rounds should be made; kissing the Black Stone and the Rukn is mustahabb. However, they disagree with respect to the permissibility of break between successive rounds of the tawaf.

According to the Maliki, Imamiyyah, and Hanbali schools, continuity without break (muwalat) is obligatory. According to the Shafi`i and Hanafi schools, it is sunnah (i.e. mustahabb) to observe muwalat, so if there is a substantial break between the rounds without any excuse, the tawaf is not invalidated. (Fiqh al‑Sunnah). Similarly according to Abu Hanifah, if one leaves off after the fourth round, he must complete his tawaf if he is in Makkah; but if he leaves Makkah, he must compensate it with a blood sacrifice. (al‑Tadhkirah)

The schools disagree with respect to the necessity of the tawaf being undertaken on foot. The Hanafi, Hanbali, and Maliki schools consider it obligatory. According to the Shafi'i school and a group of Imamiyyah scholars it is not obligatory and one may perform tawaf on a mount. Also, they disagree with respect to the two‑rak'ah prayer (rak'atan) after tawaf. According to the Maliki, Hanafi, and Imamiyyah schools, the rak`atan‑‑which is exactly like the daybreak prayer‑‑are obligatory. The Shafi'i and Hanbali schools regard it as mustahabb.

The Mustahabbat of Tawaf

The book Fiqh al‑Sunnah, discussing the topic under the heading "Sunan al‑tawaf; states, "Of things which are sunnah in tawaf are: kissing the Black Stone while starting the tawaf, accompanied with tahlil and takbir, toraise the two hands as in salat, to greet the Stone by drawing one's hands upon it (istilam), to kiss it soundlessly, to lay one's cheek on it if possible, otherwise to touch it only." Other mustahabbat are: idtiba 7for men, ramal, and istilam of al‑Ruknal‑Yamani.

According to al‑Lum`at al‑Dimashqiyyah, an Imamiyyah work, of things mustahabb in tawaf are: to halt in front of the Black Stone, to make the prayer later offered with the hands raised, to recite the Surat al‑Qadr, remember Allah‑‑subhanahu wa ta'ala, to walk peacefully, to draw one's hand on the Black Stone, to kiss it if possible otherwise to make a gesture, to draw one's hand on every corner of the Ka'bah every time one basses by or to kiss it, to draw one's hand on al‑Mustajar‑‑which is in front of the door and before al‑Rukn al‑Yamani‑‑during the seventh round, and to keep oneself as near as possible to the Ka'bah. To speak during tawaf apart from dhikr and recitation of the Qur'an, is makruh.

The Ahkam of Tawaf

According to the Imamiyyah, if a woman undergoes haydduring tawaf she discontinues tawaf and performs sa'y, if it happens after the fourth round. Then she completes the tawaf after attaining taharah, and she is not required to repeat the sa'y. But if the hadathoccurs before completing the fourth round, she waits until the day of `Arafah. If by that time she regains taharah and is in a position to complete the remaining acts, she does so. Otherwise her Hajj is converted to Hajj al‑'ifrad.

As mentioned earlier, the Hanafis permit tawaf for a woman in the state of hayd, and do not require taharah. According to the Hanafi work Fath al‑Qadir,one who leaves three or fewer rounds of the tawaf al‑ziyarahshould sacrifice a sheep; if four, he remains in the state of ihram as long as he does not complete the rounds of tawaf. But if he leaves off more than four rounds, it is as if he had not started the tawaf at all.

According to the Imdmiyyah, if after completing the rounds of tawaf one doubts whether he performed them correctly as required by the Shari`ah or whether he performed the exact number of rounds, his doubt is of no consequence. His tawaf is considered valid and complete and there is nothing upon him. But if the doubt occurs before finishing the tawaf, he should consider whether he has performed at least seven rounds, such as when he doubts whether he made seven or eight rounds. If he is certain of having performed seven rounds, then his tawaf is considered valid.

However, if he is not certain of having performed seven rounds‑‑as in the case when he doubts whether he is in his sixth or seventh round, or in his fifth or sixth‑‑in that case his tawaf is invalid and he should start afresh. It is preferable in such a case to complete the present tawafbefore starting afresh. 8This is true of a wajib tawaf. In case of a mustahabb tawaf, the basis is the least number of rounds under seven one is certain of having performed, regardless of whether the doubt occurs during or after the last round.

For the non‑Imamiyyah schools, the rule is the least number of rounds one is certain of having performed‑‑a rule which is similar to the one they apply to the doubt in the number of rak`ah'sof salat.

These are the ahkam, the mustahabbat, and the wajibat of tawaf, which, like the ruku` and sujud in salat, is always the same in all cases, whether as a part of the `Umrah mufradah, `Umrat al‑tamattu; Hajj al‑qiran, or Hajj al‑'ifrad, and regardless of whether it is tawaf al‑ziyarah, tawaf al‑nisa; tawaf al‑qudum, or tawaf al‑wada`.

As mentioned above, the tawaf is the next act after ihram in `Umrat al‑tamattu; but in the Hajj its turn comes after the pilgrim has gone through the rituals of Mind (on the `Id day) as shall be explained later.

Sa'y

All the schools agree that sa'y follows the tawaf, or its rak'atayn for those who consider them wajib.So also they agree that one who performs sa'y before tawaf should revert and perform his tawaf first and then the sa'y. I haven't come across any opinion holding that the sa'y must immediately follow the tawaf (muwalat).1

The Mustahabbat of Sa`y

According to the book Fiqh al‑Sunnah, it is mustahabb to ascend the hills of Safa and Marwah, and, facing the Holy Ka'bah, to pray to God for some religious or secular matter. It is well known that the Prophet (s), going out from Bab al‑Safa until he could see the Ka'bah. Facing it, he thrice declared the Unity of God and magnified Him; then praising God he said:

لا إله إلا الله وحده لا شريك له، له الملك، والله الحمد، يحيي ويمت، وهو على كل شيءٍ قدير، لا إله إلا الله وحده، أنجز وعده، ونصر عبده، وهزم الأحزاب وحده

There is no god except Allah. He is One, and has no partner. To Him belongs the Kingdom and the Praise. He gives life and makes to die and He is powerful over every thing. There is no god except Allah. He is One. He has fulfilled His promise and granted victory to His slave, vanquishing all the parties (of the infidels). He is One.

The mustahabbat of sa'y according to the Imamiyyah book al-Jawahir are the following: to draw one's hand on the Black Stone; to drink from the water of Zamzam and to sprinkle it on oneself; to leave [al‑Masjid al‑Haram] through the door facing the Black Stone; to ascend the Safa; to face al‑Ruknal‑`Iraqi; to praise God (hamd) and magnify Him (takbir); to prolong one's stay al‑Safa; and, after seven takbirs, to say three times:

لا إله إلا الله وحده، لا شريك له، له الملك، والله، الحمد، يحيي ويميت، وهوحيٌ لا يموت، بيده الخير، وهو على كل شيءٍ قدير.

After this he recites the prayer recommended by tradition (al‑du`a' al‑ma'thur).

As can be seen from the above, there is no divergence in this matter between the Shi`ah and the Sunni schools, except for some difference of expressions used. Also, I have not come across any jurist who regards taharah (from hadath and khabath) as obligatory for sa`y; most of the schools have expressly stated its being only mustahabb and the same is true (except for the Shafi'i) of the drawing of the hand (istilam) on the Black Stone before leaving for sa'y.

Also, all the schools are explicit about the istihbab of covering the distance between `the Milayn' (an expression used by the Hanafis and Malikis) or `the intervening distance' (wasat al‑masafah, an expression used by Shafi'is) or `between the Minaret and the Alley of the Pharmacists' (as Imamiyyah say) with a fast pace (harwalah). 2Without doubt, an informed guide is necessary to enable the pilgrims to recognize the points designated as `Milayn' or `the Alley of the Pharmacists' (Zuqaqal‑`Attarin), or `the Minaret'.

The Way of Performing Sa'y

Although there is agreement between the schools about the necessity of sa'y, they disagree about its being an essential part (rukn) of the rites of Hajj. According to the Imami, Shafi`i, and Maliki schools, it is a rukn; according to Abu Hanifah, it is not a rukn, though a wajib. Two different traditions are narrated from Ahmad ibn Hanbal. (al‑Tadhkirah, Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

All are agreed on the number of ashwat (sing. shawt) being seven, and that the performer of sa'y(i.e. sa'i) should begin at Safa going towards Marwah, and return again to Safa,3covering this distance seven times. Thus the pilgrim makes four ashwat going from Safa to Marwah and three ashwat while returning from Marwah to Safa, beginning his first shawt from Safa and finishing the seventh at Marwah.

The schools disagree as to the permissibility of making the sa'y on a mount in spite of the ability to walk, and all of them, with the exception of the Hanbalis, permit it regardless of whether one can walk or not. The Hanbalis say that it is permissible only for one who cannot walk.

I have not come across any opinion regarding continuity (muwalat) between the ashwat as wajib4, with the exception of the Hanbalis, who, as also mentioned by the author of al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah, consider it wajib. Also, it is said of Malikis that according to them if the gap between the ashwat were to become inordinate, one should begin sa'y afresh; but if the gap were not prolonged, such as when one discontinues for selling or purchasing something, it is forgivable.

Note

Al‑Sayyid Muhsin al‑Hakim, in his book on the rites of Hajj, says, "It is obligatory, while going and returning, to keep one's face turned towards one's destination .... Therefore, if someone were to turn his face away from it or were to walk backwards, or in a lateral way, it is not correct. However, there is nothing wrong in turning the face this way and that way while continuing to face the destination in the course of movement."

He means that it is obligatory that the body should face Marwah while going and should be toward Safa while returning, and it is not permissible to make the approach with only a shoulder facing the direction of the destination‑‑as may happen due to overcrowding of the pilgrims; also, while moving, the face in particular should remain in the right direction.

Al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i makes a similar statement in his work on the rites of Hajj; his words are: "It is wajib to face Marwah while going and to be towards Safa while returning. Thus if one turns his back towards Marwah while going and towards Safa while returning, it does not satisfy (lam yujzi', i.e. the conditions for a correct sa'y). Also, one should not turn towards his right or left, neither should he turn back either during the going (dhahab) or during the return (iyab).

The Ahkam of Sa'y

One who cannot perform the sa'y, either on foot or on a mount, may depute another to perform it on his/her behalf, and the Hajj would be correct. There is nothing wrong in looking to the right or the left or turning back to look during the coming and the going.

If someone makes more than seven ashwat intentionally, his sa'y is invalid, but not if the lapse was unintentional. If one were to have doubts about the number of the ashwatperformed after finishing his sa'y, it is assumed to have been correct and nothing is required of him. The author of al‑Jawahir bases this hukm about the doubt after finishing on the principle of negation of haraj, as well as on tradition.

However, if the doubt were to occur before finishing the sa'y, the author of al‑Jawahir says that there is no difference of opinion about, nor any objection against, the invalidity of the sa`y in case of any doubt about the number of the ashwat performed, whether of having exceeded or fallen short of the required number. In both cases the sa'yat hand is invalid. If one suspects one's having begun from Safa, his sa'y is correct. But if he thinks that he might have started from some other place, it is invalid. Also if one suspects the number of ashwat already performed, and does not know how many one has completed, one's sa`y is invalid.

If one has recorded the number of ashwat performed, but doubts whether one started the first one from Safa or Marwah, he should consider the number of his present shawt and the direction he is facing. If, for instance, the number is an even one (2, 4, or 6) and he is at Safa or facing it, his sa'y is correct; because this shows that he had begun at Safa. Similarly, if the number is odd (3, 5, or 7) and he is at Marwah or facing it. But if the case is reverse, that is in an even shawt he is facing Marwah or in an odd one facing towards Safa, his sa'yis invalid and should be begun anew. (al‑Jawahir)

According to the other schools, the rule is to take the minimum one is certain of having performed, as in the case of salat. (Kifayat al‑'akhyar)

According to Abu Hanifah the Hajj is not invalid even if the sa`y is omitted altogether, because it is not a ruknand can be made good by a sacrifice. (al‑Shi'rani's al‑Mizan)

The Imamiyyah and Shafi'i schools agree that no expiation (kafarah) is required of someone who commits a haramact forgetfully or in ignorance, except in the case of hunting, in which case even killing by mistake requires kaffarah.

The Limits of the Harams of Makkah and of Al‑Madinah

The prohibition of hunting and cutting of trees applies both to the haram of Makkah and that of al‑Madinah. According to Fiqh al‑Sunnah, the limits of the haram of Makkah are indicated by signs in five directions, which are one‑meter‑high stones fixed on both sides of the roads. The limits of the haram of Makkah are as follows: (1) the northern limit is marked by al‑Tan'im, which is a place at a distance of 6 kms. from Makkah; (2) the southern limit is marked by Idah, 12 kms. from Makkah; (3) the eastern limit is al‑Ja'ranah, 16 kms. from Makkah; (4) the western limit is al‑Shumaysi, 15 kms. from Makkah.

The limits of the haram of the Prophet's shrine extend from `Ir to Thawr, a distance of 12 kms. `Ir is a hill near the miqat, and Thawr is a hill at Uhud.

Al‑`Allamah al‑Hilli, an Imamiyyah legist, states in his work al‑Tadhkirah that "the haram of Makkah extends over an area of one band by one band (1 band=12miles), and the haram of al‑Madinah extends from `Ayir to `Ir. 13

Taqsir

According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Malik, it is necessary to shave (halq) or shorten the hair (taqsir) of the entire head. According to Abu Hanifah the same of a one‑fourth portion of the head is sufficient; according to al‑Shafi'i cutting of three hairs suffices. (Karrarah's al‑Din wa al‑Hajj)

According to the Imamiyyah, in taqsir one has the free choice of performing it by shortening either the hair of the head, the beard, or the moustaches or the fingernails.

All the five schools agree that taqsir is an obligatory rite, though not a rukn. According to al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim, its relationship to Hajj is the same as that of the salamwith respect to the salat, because the muhrim is relieved after it of his state of ihram in the same way as one performing the salat is after the salam.

The taqsir or the halq, whatever be the divergence of opinion about them, is to be performed once during 'Umrah mufradah and twice during Hajj al‑tamattu'. The details follow.

Taqsir in `Umrah

According to the Imamiyyah, one performing 'Umratal‑tamattu' has to perform taqsir after the sa'y; it is not permissible for him to perform halq. After it everything forbidden to him in the state of ihram becomes permissible. But if he performs halq, he should sacrifice a sheep. However, if he is on 'Umrah mufradah, he may choose between halq and taqsir, regardless of whether he brings along with him the hady or not.

If the taqsir is omitted intentionally, in case one had planned to perform Hajj al‑tamattu' and had assumed ihram before performing the taqsir, his 'Umrah is invalid and it is then obligatory upon him to perform Hajjal‑'ifrad: that is, the rites of Hajj followed by 'Umrah mufradah, and it is better for him to do Hajj again the next year.'1[48]

According to non‑Imamiyyah schools, one has a choice between taqsir and halq after finishing his sa'y. As to relief from the state of ihram, if one were performing a non‑tamattu' 'Umrah, he obtains relief from ihram after halq or taqsir, regardless of whether the hadyaccompanies him or not. But if one is performing 'Umratal‑tamattu; he is relieved of ihram if not accompanied by the hady; but if accompanied he remains in the state of ihram. (al‑Mughni)

Taqsir in Hajj

The second type of taqsir is a part of the rites of all the various kinds of Hajj‑tamattu', qiran, or ifrad‑‑to be performed by Hajj pilgrim after the dhabh or nahr(animal sacrifice) in Mina. All the schools agree that here one has a choice between taqsir and halq, halq being more meritorious. They disagree, however, in regard to one with matted hair, whether he must shave his head or if, like others, he also has a choice between halq and taqsir. The Hanbali, the Shafi' i, and the Maliki schools prescribe only halq forhim, but the Imamiyyah and the Hanafi give him the same choice as others.

All the legal schools agree that women don't have to perform halq, rather, they may perform only taqsir.

Abu Hanifah and a group of Imamiyyah legists say that one who is bald, completely or partially, as when only the frontal portion of the head is hairless, must nevertheless draw the razor over the [hairless portion of the] head. The rest only consider it mustahabb (al‑Hada'iq, Fiqh al‑Sunnah).

According to the Imamiyyah, the halq or the taqsiris obligatory in Mina. Therefore, one who departs without halq ortaqsir should return to perform either of the two, regardless of whether his lapse was intentional or not, and despite the knowledge or out of ignorance. However, if it is difficult or infeasible for him to return, he may perform it wherever he can.

As to the rest, they say that it should be performed within the haram. (Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

All agree that sex is not permitted after the halq or the taqsir. The Malikis include perfume as also being impermissible. The Imamiyyah include with the above two hunting (sayd), which is forbidden because of the respect for the sanctity of the haram. Apart from these three things, the rest are permissible by the consensus of all the five schools. For the four Sunni schools, everything, including sex, becomes permissible after the tawaf al‑ziyarah. As for the Imamiyyah, sex and perfume are not allowed until after the tawafal‑nisa'.

We conclude this section with the words of al‑'Allamah al‑Hilli in his Tadhkirah:

If [the pilgrim] departs from Mina without halq or taqsir, he returns to perform it there‑‑an obligation if within the reach of possibility. But if his returning is not possible, he performs halq wherever he is, sending his hair to be carried to Mina to be buried there, which if he cannot there is nothing upon him .... The time for halq is on the day of `Id, by consensus, for the Almighty has said [in Qur'an]:

..وَلَا تَحْلِقُوا رُءُوسَكُمْ حَتَّىٰ يَبْلُغَ الْهَدْيُ مَحِلَّهُ …

"And do not shave your head until the sacrifice reaches its [specified] destination." (2:196);

and the place of the sacrifice (hady) is Mina on the day of `Id. It has been recorded that the Prophet (s) performed first ramy, then nahr, and then halq, at Mina on the `Id day.

We shall have occasion to refer to the hukm about the ha1q performed prior to the dhabh while discussing later the rites of Mina.2.

The Wuq'uf

The Wuq'uf in 'Arafat

The pilgrim performing `Umrah mufradah or Hajj al‑tamattu` first assumes ihram, then performs tawaf offers the rak`atayn, then performs sa'y, then taqsir. This order is obligatory, and in it while the ihram precedes all the other steps, the tawaf precedes the salat, the salat is prior to the sa'y, and at the end is taqsir. 1

The Second Rite of Hajj

The rites of Hajj, as in the case of `Umrah, start with ihram. However, the rite which is next to ihram in the case of Hajj, and is considered one of the arkan of Hajj by consensus, in the wuquf (halt) in `Arafat, there being no difference whether one is on Hajj al‑'ifrad or Hajj al‑tamattu; although it is permissible for those on Hajj al‑'ifrad or Hajj al‑qiran to enter Makkah to perform a tawaf after assuming ihram and before proceeding to `Arafat. This tawaf (called tawaf al‑qudam) resembles the rak`atayn called tahiyyatal‑masjid, recommended as a mark of respect to a mosque.

Al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim, in his book on the rites of Hajj, says, "It is permissible for one intending Hajj al‑qiran or al‑'ifrad to perform the mustahabb tawaf on entering Makkah and before proceeding to wuquf [in `Arafat]." Ibn Hajar, in Fath al‑Bart bi Sharh al‑Bukhari,writes: "All of them [the four legal schools] agree that there is no harm if one who has assumed ihram for Hajj al‑'ifrad performs a tawaf of the (Holy) House," that is, before proceeding to `Arafat. One on Hajj al‑tamattu',as said, should perform the tawaf of `Umratal‑tamattu` instead of the tawaf al‑qudum.

Before the Halt in `Arafat

There is consensus among the legal schools that it is mustahabb for the Hajj pilgrim to go out from Makkah in the state of ihram on the day of Tarwiyah (the 8th of Dhu al‑Hijjah), passing towards Mina on his way to `Arafat.

According to the Imamiyyah books al‑Tadhkirah and al-Jawahir, it is mustahabb for one intending to proceed towards `Arafat not to leave Makkah before offering the zuhr and `asr prayers. The four Sunni schools say that it is mustahabb to offer them at Mina. (al‑Mughni)

In any case, it is permissible to proceed to `Arafat a day or two before that of Tarwiyah, in particular for the ill, the aged, women, and those who are claustrophobic. Also it is permissible to delay until the morning of the 9th so as to arrive at `Arafat by the time when the sun crosses the meridian (zawal).

I have not come across any jurist who considers it wajibto spend at Mina the night before the day of wuquf at`Arafat, or to perform some rite there. Al‑`Allamah al‑Hilli, in his Tadhkirah, writes: "To spend the night of `Arafah at Mina for resting is mustahabb; but it is not a rite, nor is there anything against one who doesn't do it." Fath al‑Bariand Fath al‑Qadir have something similar to say.

The word `rest' (for istirahah) used by al‑`Allamah al‑Hilli does not need to be explained, for travel in the past used to be exhausting; so he considered it mustahabb for the pilgrims to stay for the night at Mina so as to arrive looking fresh and in good spirits at `Arafat. But travel today is quite a pleasure. Therefore, if one spends the night of `Arafah in Makkah, going to `Arafat the following morning, or after the zuhrprayer, passing through Mina on his way‑‑as the pilgrims' practice is nowadays‑‑that is sufficient and there is nothing wrong in that. The pilgrim will return to Mina later after the halt in `Arafat, for the ramy al‑Jamrah‑‑but to that we shall come later.

The Period of the Halt in Arafat

There is consensus among the legal schools that the day of the halt in 'Arafat is the 9th of Dhu al‑Hijjah, but they disagree as to the hour of its beginning and end on that day. According to the Hanafi, the Shafi'i, and the Maliki schools, it begins at midday on the 9th and lasts until the daybreak (fajr) on the tenth. According to the Hanbali school, it begins from the daybreak on the 9th until daybreak on the tenth. According to the Imamiyyah, from midday on the 9th until sunset on the same day, for one who is free to plan; and in case of one in an exigency, until the following daybreak.

It is mustahabb to take a bath for the wuquf in 'Arafat, to be performed like the Friday bath. There is no rite to be performed in 'Arafat except one's presence there: one may sleep or keep awake, sit, stand, walk around or ride a mount.

The Limits of 'Arafat

The limits of 'Arafat are `Arnah, Thawbah, and from Nimrah to Dhu al‑Majaz, which are names of places around 'Arafat. One may not make the halt in any of those places, neither in Taht al‑'Arak, because they are outside 'Arafat. If one were to make the halt in any of those places, his Hajj is invalid by consensus of all the schools, with the exception of the Maliki, according to which one may halt at `Arnah though he will have to make a sacrifice.

The entire area of 'Arafat is mawqif (permissible for the wuqaf) and one may make the halt at any spot within it by consensus of all schools. Al‑'Imam al‑Sadiq (`a) relates that when the Prophet (s) made the halt at 'Arafat, the people crowded around him, rushing along on the hoof‑prints of his camel. Whenever the camel moved, they moved along with it. (When he saw this), the Prophet said, "O people, the mawqif is not confined to where my camel stands, rather this entire 'Arafat is mawqif," and pointed to the plains of 'Arafat. "If the mawqif were limited to where my camel stands, the place would be too little for the people." (al‑Tadhkirah)

The Conditions Applicable to the Halt

Taharah (ritual purity) is not a condition for the halt at 'Arafat, by consensus of all the schools.

According to the Imamiyyah and the Malik! schools, the halt at `Arafat must be made with prior intention (niyyah) and with the implied knowledge that the place where he is halting is indeed 'Arafat. Thus if he were to pass on without knowing, or know without intending the wuquf it is not considered wuquf as such.

According to the Shafi`i and the Maliki schools, neither intent nor knowledge is a condition. All that is required is freedom from insanity, intoxication, and loss of consciousness. According to the Hanafis, neither intent, nor knowledge, nor sanity is a condition; whosoever is present in 'Arafat during the specific period, his Hajj is correct, intent or no intent, whether he knows the place or not, whether sane or insane. (Fiqh al‑Sunnah, al‑Tadhkirah)

Is it necessary to make the halt in 'Arafat for the full specified period, or is it sufficient to be present there for some time, even if it is for a single moment?

According to the Imamiyyah, there are two kinds of periods for the halt, depending on whether one arrives at a time of his own choice (ikhtiyari) or the time is forced upon him by circumstances beyond his control (idtirari). In the case of the former, the period of halt for him is from midday on the ninth until sunset on the same day; in the case of the latter, the period lasts until the daybreak of the tenth.

So one who can make the halt from noon until sunset for the entire period, it is wajib upon him; although halt not far the entire period but halt for a part of it is rukn [that is without it the Hajj would not be valid], the rest being merely a wajib. This means that if someone omits the halt his Hajj is invalid far not performing a rukn of it. But if one makes a short halt, he has omitted only a wajib which is not rukn, and so his Hajj does not lose its validity [on this account]. Moreover, if someone cannot make the halt for the entire ikhtiyari period, due to some legitimate excuse, it is sufficient for him to make the halt for a part of the night of `Id.

According to the Shafi'i, the Maliki, and the Hanbali schools, mere presence even if for a single moment, is sufficient. (al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhdhib al‑'arba `ah, Manar al‑sabil)

According to the Imamiyyah, if one leaves `Arafat intentionally before the midday, he must return and there is nothing upon him if he does. But if he doesn't, he must sacrifice a camel, and if that is beyond his means fast for 18 days in succession. But if the lapse were by oversight and he does not discover it until the time is past, there is nothing upon him, on condition that he is present at the halt in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram in time. But if he remembers before the period expires, he must return as far as possible, and if he doesn't he must sacrifice a camel.

The Malikis say that one who makes the halt in `Arafat after the midday and leaves `Arafat before the sunset, he must repeat the Hajj the following year if he does not return to `Arafat before the daybreak (on the 9th). But all other legists say that his Hajj is complete. (Ibn Rushd's Bidayah)

According to al‑Fiqh al‑musawwar `ala madhhab al‑Shafi'i,"if one forgets and omits the halt, it is obligatory upon him to change his Hajj into `Umrah, and then complete the remaining rites of Hajj after performing its rites; also he must repeat the Hajj in the immediate following year."

It is mustahabb for one performing the halt in 'Arafat to: observe taharah; face the Holy Ka'bah; and do a lot of dua' and istighfar, with due surrender, humility, and with a heart‑felt presence before God.

The Wu'quf in Muzdalifah

The halt in Muzdalifah is the next rite after the halt in `Arafat, by consensus of all the schools. They also agree that when the Hajj pilgrim turns to Muzdalifah (where al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram is situated) after the halt in `Arafat, he is acting in accordance with the following Divine verse of the Qur'an:

فَإِذَا أَفَضْتُمْ مِنْ عَرَفَاتٍ فَاذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ عِنْدَ الْمَشْعَرِ الْحَرَامِ وَاذْكُرُوهُ كَمَا هَدَاكُمْ

When you pour forth from 'Arafat, then remember Allah in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram, remembering Him in the way you have been shown. (2:198)

Also, there is agreement that it is mustahabb to delay the maghrib (sunset) prayer on the night preceding the `Id day until Muzdalifah is reached. The author of al‑Tadhkirahwrites that when sun sets in `Arafat, then one should go forth before the (maghrib) prayer towards al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram and recite there the supplication prescribed by tradition. The author of al‑Mughni says, "It is sunnah (i.e. mustahabb) for one leaving `Arafat not to offer the maghrib prayer until Muzdalifah is reached, whereat the maghrib and the `isha' prayers should be offered together.

There is no difference regarding this, as Ibn al‑Mundhir also points out when he says: "There is consensus among the `ulama', and no divergence of opinion, that it is sunnah for the Hajj pilgrim to offer the maghrib and the `isha' prayers together; the basis for it is that the Prophet (s) offered them together.' "2

All the legal schools, with the exception of the Hanafi, agree that if one were to offer the maghrib prayer before reaching Muzdalifah and not offer the two prayers together, his salatis nevertheless valid despite its being contrary to what is mustahabb. Abu Hanifah does not consider it valid.

The Limits of Muzdalifah

According to al‑Tadhkirah and al‑Mughni,Muzdalifah has three names: Muzdalifah, Jam`, and al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram, its limits are from al‑Ma'zamayn to al‑Hiyad, towards the valley of Muhassir. The entire Muzdalifah is mawqif, like `Arafat, and it is legitimate to make the halt at any spot inside it. According to al‑Madarik, it is a settled and definite matter among the Imamiyyah legists that it is permissible, in case of overcrowding, to ascend the heights towards the hill, which is one of the limits of Muzdalifah.

The Night at Muzdalifah

Is it obligatory to spend the entire night of `Id at Muzdalifah, or is it sufficient to halt in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram even for a moment after the daybreak? (It is assumed, of course, that the meaning of wuquf is mere presence: one may be walking around, sitting or riding a mount, as in the case of the halt at 'Arafat).

According to the Hanafi, the Shafi`i, and the Hanbali schools, it is obligatory to spend the entire night at Muzdalifah and the defaulter is required to make a sacrifice. (al‑Mughni)According to the Imamiyyah and the Maliki, it is not wajib,though meritorious. This is what Shihab al‑Din al‑Baghdadi the Maliki, in his Irshad al‑salik, and al‑Hakim and al‑Khu'i have confirmed. However, no one has considered it a rukn.

As to halting in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram after the daybreak, Ibn Rushd, in al‑Bidayah wa al‑nihayah, cites the consensus of the Sunni fuqaha' to the effect that it is one of the sunan(sing. sunnah) of the Hajj, not one of its furud(duties; sing. fard).

According to al‑Tadhkirah, "It is obligatory to halt in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram after the daybreak, and if someone were to leave intentionally before the daybreak after halting there for the night, he must sacrifice a sheep. Abu Hanifah also says that it is obligatory to halt after the daybreak. The rest of the schools permit departure after midnight." Therefore, with the exception of the Imamiyyah and the Hanafi schools, others permit departure from Muzdalifah before the daybreak.

The Imamiyyah say that the time of halt in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram is of two kinds: the first (ikhtiyari) is for one who has no reason for delaying, and that is the entire period between the daybreak and the sunrise on the day of `Id; whoever leaves advertently and knowingly from the Mash'ar before the daybreak and after being there for the whole or part of the night, his Hajj is not invalidated if he had halted at 'Arafat, although he must sacrifice a sheep. If he had left the Mash'ar on account of ignorance, there is nothing upon him, as made explicit in the above quotation.

The second (idtirari) is for women and those who have an excuse for not halting between the daybreak and the sunrise; their time extends to midday on the day of `Id. The author of al‑Jawahir says that there is both textual evidence (from hadith) as well as consensus to support the above prescription, and the fatawa of al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim and al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i are also in accordance with it. The latter has not stated midday as the idtirari time limit, but says that it is sufficient to make the halt after sunrise.

The Imamiyyah also say that the wuquf in the two specified periods of time is a rukn of the Hajj. Therefore, if someone does not perform it altogether either in the ikhtiyari period for the night or in the idtirariperiod, his Hajj is invalid if he hadn't spent the night there; but not if the default ‑was on account of a legitimate excuse, on condition that he had performed the halt at 'Arafat. So one who fails to make the halts at 'Arafat and the Mash'ar, neither in the ikhtiyari nor in the idtirari period, his Hajj is invalid even if the failure was on account of a legitimate reason. It is obligatory upon him to perform Hajj the year after if the Hajj intended was a wajib one; and if it was a mustahabb Hajj, it is mustahabb for him to perform it the next year. (al-Jawahir)

The halt in al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram is held in greater importance by the Imamiyyah than the one in 'Arafat; that is why they say that one who loses the chance to be present at the halt in 'Arafat but participates in the halt at the Mash'ar before the sunrise, his Hajj is complete. (al‑Tadhkirah)

Mustahabbat of the Mash`ar

According to the Imamiyyah it is mustahabb for one performing Hajj for the first time to put his feet on the ground of the Mash'ar. (al-Jawahir)

According to the Imamiyyah, the Shafi`i and the Maliki schools, it is mustahabb while leaving for Mina to gather seventy pebbles, for the ramy al‑jamarat, at Muzdalifah. The reason for this, according to the author of al‑Tadhkirah, is that when the Hajj pilgrim arrives in Mina he should not be detained by anything from the rite of the ramy. Ibn Hanbal is narrated to have said that the pebbles may be gathered from any place; and there is no disagreement that it suffices to gather them from whatever place one wishes.

The maintenance of taharah, the pronouncing of tahlil, takbir, and du`a' (the prescribed one or something else) is also mustahabb.

At Mina

All the schools are in agreement that the rites after the halt at al‑Mash'ar al‑Haram are those of Mina, and that departure from Muzdalifah is after the sunrise, and one who leaves before sunrise, passing beyond its limits, according to al‑Khu'i, must sacrifice a sheep as kaffarah.

At Mina one performs several rites which continue from the Day of Sacrifice (yawm al‑nahr), or the day of `Id, until the morning of the thirteenth or the night of the twelfth. The wajibat of Hajj are completed in Mina. The three days following the day of `Id (the 11th, 12th, and the 13th) are called "ayyam al‑tashriq."1

Three rites are obligatory at Mina on the day of `Id: (1) ramy of the Jamrat al‑`Aqabah; (2) al‑dhabh(slaughtering of the sacrificial animal); (3) halq or taqsir. Agreeing that the Prophet (s) performed first the ramy, then the nahr (or dhabh) and then the taqsir, the schools disagree whether this order is obligatory and if it is impermissible to change that order, or if the order is only mustahabb and may be altered.

According to al‑Shafi` i and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, there is nothing upon one who changes the order. Malik says that if someone performs halq before the nahr or the ramy, he must make a sacrifice; and if he was performing Hajj al‑qiran then two sacrifices. (Ibn Rushd's al‑Bidayah). According to the Imamiyyah, it is a sin to change the order knowingly and intentionally, although repetition is not required. The author of al‑Jawahir says, "I have not found any difference of opinion on this point", and al‑Madarik states that the jurists are definite on this point.

Now we shall deal with each one of these rites under a separate heading.

Jamrat al `Aqabah

The Number of Jimar

Ramy al jimar, or the symbolic throwing of pebbles performed in Mina, is obligatory upon all pilgrims of the Hajj, whether tamattu; qiran or ifrad. This rite is performed ten times during the four days. The first ramy, in which only one point called Jamrat al‑`Aqabah is stoned, is performed on the day of `Id. On the second day, i.e. 11th of Dhu al‑Hijjah, the three jimar are stoned, and again every three on the third and the fourth day. This applies to the Hajj pilgrim who spends the night of the twelfth in Mina; otherwise there is no ramy for him on that day.

Jamrah of the Tenth of Dhu al‑Hijjah

The legal schools agree that it suffices to perform the ramy of the Jamrat al‑`Aqabah any time from sunrise until sunset on the tenth of Dhu al‑Hijjah, but disagree as to its performance before or after that period. According to the Maliki, the Hanafi, the Hanbali and the Imami schools, it is not permissible to perform the ramy of the Jamrat al‑`Aqabah before the daybreak, and if performed without an excuse, must be repeated. They permit it for an excuse like sickness, weakness, or insecurity (fear).

According to the Shafi'i school, performing the rite earlier is unobjectionable, for the specified period is mustahabb not wajib (al‑Tadhkirah, Ibn Rushd's Bidayah). However, if delayed until after sunset on the day of `Id, according to Malik, the defaulter must make a sacrifice if he performs the rite during the night or the next day. According to the Shafi`is, there is nothing upon him if he performs the rite of ramy in the night or the next day. (Ibn Rushd's Bidayah)

According to the Imamiyyah, the time of this ramy extends from sunrise until sunset on that day. If forgotten, the rite must be performed the next day. If again forgotten, on the 12th, and if one fails again, it can be performed on the 13th. But if one forgets until one has left Makkah, he may carry it out the following year, either himself or through a deputy who carries it out on his behalf.1

The Conditions of Ramy

There are certain conditions for the validity of ramy al jamarat:

1. Niyyah: stated by the Imamiyyah explicitly.

2. That each ramy must be carried out with seven pebbles; there is agreement on this point.

3. The pebbles must be thrown one at a time, not more; again there is consensus on this point.

4. The pebbles must strike the known target; there is also consensus on this point.

5. The pebbles must reach their target through being thrown (ramy); thus if they are tossed in some other manner, it does not suffice according to the Imami and the Shafi'i schools, and is not permissible according to the Hanbali and the Hanafi schools. (al‑Mughni)

6. The pebbles must be of stone, not of other material, like salt, iron, copper, wood or porcelain, etc.; this is accepted unanimously by all the schools except that of Abu Hanifah, who says that it is all right if pebbles are made of some earthen material, such as porcelain, clay or stone. (al‑Mughni)

7. The pebbles must be `new', that is, not used for rainybefore; the Hanbalis state this condition expressly.

Taharah is not a condition in ramy, though desirable.

The Imamiyyah say that it is mustahabb that the pebbles be about the size of a finger tip and rough, neither black, nor white, nor red. The other schools say that their size must be about that of the seed of a broad bean (baqila').

The Imamiyyah also say that it is mustahabb for the Hajj pilgrim to perform all the rites facing the Qiblah, with the exception of the ramy of the Jamrat al‑`Aqabah on the day of `Id, which is mustahabb to perform with one's back towards the Qiblah, since the Prophet (s) had performed this rite in that way. The other schools say that facing the Qiblah is mustahabb even in this rite.

Also, it is mustahabb to perform the ramy on foot (though riding a mount is permissible), not to be farther from the Jamrah than 10 cubits, to perform it with the right hand, to recite the prayers prescribed by tradition and other prayers. Following is one of the prayers prescribed by tradition:

اللهم اجعله حجاً مبروراً، وذنباً مغفوراً. اللهم إن هذه حصيائي، فأحصهن لي،

وارفعهن في عملي ... الله أكبر. اللهم أدحر الشيطان عني.

O God, make my Hajj a blessing, a forgiving of my sins .... O God, these pebbles of mine, reckon them and place them high in my actions .... God is Great. O God, repel Satan from me.

Doubt

What if one doubts whether the pebble thrown has struck its target or not? It is assumed not to have hit. If one doubts the number thrown, he may count from the least number of which he is sure he has thrown.

Jamrat al‑`Aqabah is the first rite performed by the Hajj pilgrim in Mina on the day of `Id, which is followed by the dhabh, then halq or taqsir. After that he proceeds to Makkah for tawaf the same day.

On this day, there is no other rite of ramy for him. Now we shall proceed to discuss the sacrifice (hady).

Hady

The second obligatory rite in Mina is the hady or animal sacrifice. The issues related to it are: (1) its kinds, wajib and mustahabb, and the various kinds of wajib sacrifice; (2) regarding those for whom the hady is wajib; (3) the requirements of the hady; (4) its time and place; (5) the legal rules about its flesh; (6) the substitute duty of one who can neither find the hady nor possess the means to purchase one. The details are as follow:

The Kinds of Hady

The hady is of two kinds; wajib and mustahabb. The mustahabb sacrifice is the one mentioned in the following verse of the Qur'an:

فَصَلِّ لِرَبِّكَ وَانْحَرْ.

`So pray unto the Lord and sacrifice' (108:2), which is interpreted as a commandment to the Prophet (s) to sacrifice after the `Id day prayer. A tradition relates that the Prophet (s) sacrificed two rams, one white and the other black.

According to the Malikis and the Hanafis, the sacrifice is obligatory for every family once every year; it is, they say, similar to the zakat al fitr: The Imamiyyah and the Shafi`i schools say that the mustahabb sacrifice can be carried out in Mina on any of the four days, the day of `Id and the three days following it (called ayyam al‑tashriq).

But at places other than Mina the sacrifice may be carried out only during three days: the day of `Id, and the 11th and the 12th. According to the Hanbalis, the Malikis, and the Hanafis, its time is three days whether in Mina or elsewhere. In any case, the best time for the sacrifice is after sunrise on the day of `Id during a period sufficient for holding the `Id prayer and delivering its two khutbahs (sermons).

The obligatory sacrifices, in accordance with the Qur'anic text, are four:

(1) The sacrifice related to Hajj al‑tamattu` in accordance with the verse:

فَإِذَا أَمِنْتُمْ فَمَنْ تَمَتَّعَ بِالْعُمْرَةِ إِلَى الْحَجِّ فَمَا اسْتَيْسَرَ مِنَ الْهَدْيِ

...If in peacetime anyone ofyou combines the `Umrah with the Hajj, he must offer such sacrifice as he can...(2:196)

(2) The sacrifice related to halq, which is a wajib open to choice, in accordance with the verse:

فَمَنْ كَانَ مِنْكُمْ مَرِيضًا أَوْ بِهِ أَذًى مِنْ رَأْسِهِ فَفِدْيَةٌ مِنْ صِيَامٍ أَوْ صَدَقَةٍ أَوْ نُسُكٍ

But if any ofyou is ill or suffers from an ailment of the head, he must offer a fidyah either by fasting or by alms‑giving or by offering a sacrifice. (2:196)

(3) The sacrifice related to the penalty (jaza') for hunting, in accordance with the verse:

وَمَنْ قَتَلَهُ مِنْكُمْ مُتَعَمِّدًا فَجَزَاءٌ مِثْلُ مَا قَتَلَ مِنَ النَّعَمِ يَحْكُمُ بِهِ ذَوَا عَدْلٍ مِنْكُمْ هَدْيًا بَالِغَ الْكَعْبَةِ

He that kills game by design, shall present, as an offering near the Ka`bah, a domestic beast equivalent to that which he has killed, to be determined by two honest men among you; .... (5:95)

(4) The sacrifice related to "ihsar" [some hindrance which keeps one from completing the rites of Hajj, such as illness or interruption due to an enemy], in accordance with the following verse (al‑Tadhkirah):

إِنْ أُحْصِرْتُمْ فَمَا اسْتَيْسَرَ مِنَ الْهَدْيِ

If you cannot; offer such sacrifice as you can afford...(2:196)

Besides the above four, there are also the obligatory sacrifices related to any of the following: `ahd (pledge), nadhr (vow), yamin (oath). In what follows we shall discuss hady as one of the rites of Hajj.

For Whom is Hady Wajib?

The hady is not obligatory, by consensus of all the schools, upon one performing `Umrah mufradah, nor on one performing Hajj al‑'ifrad. Similarly, there is consensus regarding its being obligatory upon the non‑Makkan pilgrim on Hajj al‑tamattu`. The four Sunni schools add that it is also obligatory upon the pilgrim on Hajjal‑qiran.

According to the Imamiyyah, it is not obligatory on one on Hajj al‑qiran except with nadhr (vow), or when he brings along with him the sacrificial animal at the time of assuming ihram.

There is disagreement regarding whether the Makkan performing Hajj al‑tamattu` must offer a sacrifice or not. According to the four Sunni schools, the hady is not wajib upon him. Al‑Mughni states that "there is no disagreement among scholars that the sacrifice of tamattu` is not wajibon those living in the neighbourhood of al‑Masjid al‑Haram." The Imamiyyah say that if the Makkan performs Hajj al‑tamattu`the hady is obligatory upon him." This is stated by al‑Jawahir where it says, "If the Makkan were to perform Hajj al‑tamattu; the hady is wajib upon him according to the widely held (mashhur) opinion [of the Imami fuqaha'].

The legal schools, however, agree that the obligatory hady is not one of the arkan of Hajj.

The Requirements of the Hady

The hady must meet the following requirements:

1. It must belong to cattle, such as camel, cow, sheep, or goat, by consensus of all the five schools. As stated by al‑Mughni, according to the Hanafi, the Maliki, the Shafi'i and the Hanbali schools: if a sheep, it must be at least six months; if a goat, of one year; if a cow, of two years; and if a camel of five years. This agrees with the Imamiyyah view as stated by al-Jawahir, with the difference that the camel must have entered its sixth and the goat its second year.

Al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim and al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i have said that it suffices if the camel has entered its sixth and the cow or the goat its third. As to the sheep, they add, to be cautious, the sheep must have entered its second.

2. The sacrificial animal must be free of any defect, and, by consensus, must not be one‑eyed, lame, sick or old and decrepit. There is disagreement, however, regarding its acceptability in case of castration, being without horns or with broken ones, missing or mutilated ears or tail. Such are not acceptable according to al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim and al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i, but acceptable according to the author of al‑Mughni.

Al‑`Allamah al‑Hilli, in al‑Tadhkirah, says that female camel and cow and male sheep and goats are to be preferred, although the permissibility of the converse in the two cases is not disputed by any school. The author of al‑Mughni' says that the sex of the sacrificial animal is irrelevant.

The Time and the Place of the Sacrifice

As to the occasion of the sacrifice, it is, according to the Maliki, the Hanafi, and the Hanbali schools, the day of `Id and the two days following it. Abu Hanifah adds that this time is specific for the sacrificial rite of Hajj al‑qiran and tamattu; but for the others he sets no such time limit. The Ma1ikis do not recognize any difference between various kinds of hady, as mentioned by al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah.

The Hanbalis say that if the sacrifice is made before its time, it must be made again. If after its time, in case of mustahabb the lapse of time cancels it; and in case of wajib it must be fulfilled. According to the Hanafis, slaughtering the sacrificial animal before the three days of `Id is not sufficient, but is if done later though a kaffarah is required for the delay. According to the Shafi`is, the time of the obligatory sacrifice for Hajj al‑tamattu` starts with ihram; therefore, performing it earlier [than the day of `Id] is permissible, and there is no time limit for delaying, although it is best performed on the `Id day. (al‑Fiqh `ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah)

The Imamiyyah regard niyyah as being obligatory in slaughtering (dhabh or nahr), and say that its time is on the day of `Id; although it is acceptable until the third day following it, or even until the end of Dhu al‑Hijjah, although the delay is a sin. The author of al‑Jawahir reports that there is no divergence [among Imami legists] on this point, even if the delay is without a [legitimate] excuse. It is not permissible, according to the Imamiyyah, to make the sacrifice before the 10th of Dhu al‑Hijjah.

As to the place, it is the Haram, according to the Hanbali, the Shafi'i, and the Hanafi schools, which includes Mina 2and other places, as mentioned above while discussing ihramand the limits of the harams of Makkah and al‑Madinah.

According to the Imamiyyah, there are three conditions for slaughtering the hady in Mina: (1) that the hady must have been brought in the ihram assumed for Hajj, not in the ihram for `Umrah; (2) the pilgrim should have halted for some time of the night with the hady in `Arafat; (3) he should have made the resolve to make the sacrifice on the day of `Id or the following day. Also the Imamiyyah say that the pilgrim of Hajj al‑tamattu` may make the sacrifice nowhere but in Mina, even if his Hajj is supererogatory. But the hadybrought along in the ihram of `Umrah is to be slaughtered in Makkah. (al‑Tadhkirah)

In any case, for all the schools offering of the sacrifice is legitimate and preferable at Mina. Ibn Rushd says that the consensus of the `ulama' is in favour of slaughtering the hady at Mina. Secondly, the difference between the Imamiyyah and the other schools is that the Imamiyyah specify Mina, while others allow an open choice between Mina and other places inside the haram of Makkah.

The Flesh of the Hady

The Hanbalis and the Shafi'is say that the flesh of the hady whose slaughtering inside the haram is wajib is to be distributed among the poor inside it. The Hanafis and the Malikis say: it is permissible to distribute it inside or outside the haram. The Shafi'is say: one may not (oneself) eat the flesh of a wajib hady, but that of a voluntary or mustahabb hady is permissible. The Malikis say: with the exception of the sacrifice made as fidyah for hurting someone (adha), hunting, or sacrifice vowed (nadhr) specifically for the poor, and the voluntary hady which dies before reaching its destination; the flesh of the hady may be eaten in all cases. (al‑Mughni, al‑Fiqh ala al‑madhahib al‑'arba`ah, Fiqh al‑Sunnah)

The Imamiyyah say: a third of the flesh should be given to the poor believers; another third to other believers, even the well off; and the remaining third may be consumed by the pilgrim. (al-Jawahir, al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim and al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i in their books on the manasik of Hajj).

The Substitute Duty (al‑Badal)

All the legal schools agree that when the Hajj pilgrim cannot find the hady nor possesses means to acquire one, its substitute is to keep fasts for ten days, three of which for successive days, are to be kept during the Hajj days and the remaining seven on returning home. This is in accordance with the Divine verse: 3

فَمَنْ لَمْ يَجِدْ فَصِيَامُ ثَلَاثَةِ أَيَّامٍ فِي الْحَجِّ وَسَبْعَةٍ إِذَا رَجَعْتُمْ تِلْكَ عَشَرَةٌ كَامِلَةٌ

...But if he lacks the means let him fast three days during the pilgrimage and seven when he has returned; that is ten days in all. (2:196)

The criterion of capacity to offer the hady is ability to arrange one in the place, and when it can't be done the duty of hady is changed into that of the fasts. This holds even if the pilgrim should be a man of means in his own homeland. This is because the obligation is specific to the occasion and so is the capacity to fulfil it. A similar case is that of availability of water for taharah.

Dhabh by a Wakil

It is preferable that the Hajj pilgrim should slaughter the hady himself, though it is permissible to ask someone else to do it, because it is one of the rites in which delegation is possible. The one deputed (wakil) makes the niyyah of slaughtering on behalf of the one who deputes, and it is better that both of them should make the niyyah together. According to the Imamiyyah it is mustahabb for the pilgrim to put his hand on that of him who slaughters or at least be present at the time of slaughtering.

Shaykh `Abd Allah al‑Mamqani, in Manahij al‑yaqin,writes: "If the wakil makes an error in mentioning the name of the one who appoints him, or forgets his name altogether, there is no harm in it." There is a good point here, for it is related from one of the Imams (`a) that in a marriage ceremony the wakil made a mistake while mentioning the bride's name or mentioned some other name. The Imam (`a) said, "It doesn't matter."

Qani `and Mu`tarr

In regard to the verse 36 of the Surat al‑Hajj:

ا فَكُلُوا مِنْهَا وَأَطْعِمُوا الْقَانِعَ وَالْمُعْتَرَّ

...and eat of their flesh and feed with it the qani 'and the mu`tarr... (22:36)

al‑Imam al‑Sadiq (`a) said, "The qani` is the (poor) man who is content with what you give him and does not show his displeasure and does not frown or twitch his mouth in irritation. The mu`tarr is one who comes to you for charity and presents himself."

The Substitute for Camel Sacrifice

If the sacrifice of a camel is obligatory upon someone, through kaffarah or nadhr, and he cannot arrange it, he must sacrifice seven sheep one after another, and if that is not possible fast for 18 days. (al‑Tadhkirah)

Taqlid and Ish`ar

`Taqlid; in this context, means putting a shoe or the like in the neck of the sacrificial animal. `Ish`ar' means making an incision in the right side of the hump of a camel or cow and letting it be stained by blood. The Sunni jurists regard ish`ar and taqlid as mustahabb except Abu Hanifah, who says that the taqlid of the sheep and the camel is sunnah, but ish'aris by no means permissible due to the pain it causes to the animal. (al‑Mughni) We all favour kind treatment of the animals, and at the same time we are all Muslims. Islam has permitted the slaughtering of animals and even made it obligatory in case of hady, as Abu Hanifah also concedes by his act and verdict. In this light, ish'aris more entitled to permissibility.

Charity to Non‑Muslims

Al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i, in his book on the rites of Hajj, says, "The Hajj pilgrim giving something in charity (sadaqah) or gifting the meat of the slaughtered animal, may give the latter to anybody he wishes, even a non‑mu'min or a non‑Muslim.

In general the Imamiyyah permit the giving of non‑wajibsadaqat or making of endowment (waqf) in favour of a Muslim or a non‑Muslim. Sayyid Abu al‑Hasan al‑'Isfahani, in his Wasilat al‑najat, says: "In giving of mustahabb sadaqah, poverty or possession of iman or islam is not a condition for the recipient. He may be a well‑to‑do man, a non‑'Imami, a Dhimmi, and a total stranger (not a blood relation of the giver of charity)." Al‑Sayyid al‑Kazim, in the appendices of al‑`Urwat al‑wuthqa, permits giving of sadaqah even to a warring infidel (kafir harbi).

The Burning or Burying of Slaughtered Animals

It is a custom among Hajj pilgrims nowadays that they offer money to whoever would accept the hady4, which he on receiving either buries or throws away because the number of the slaughtered animals is great and nobody around to make use of their meat.

Throughout whatever I have read I did not come across anyone who should raise a question about the permissibility or otherwise of this practice. In 1949 a group of Egyptian pilgrims asked the al‑'Azhar for a fatwa, asking the permission for giving the price of the hady as help to the needy.

In reply, al‑Shaykh Mahmud Shaltut, in Vol. 1, No.4 of the journal Risalat al‑'Islam which was issued by the Dar al‑Taqrib at Cairo, considered it obligatory to make the slaughter even if it should require burning or burial of the bodies of the slaughtered beasts.

I contested his opinion in a long article which appeared in two successive numbers of the above‑mentioned journal in the year 1950. When the Dar al‑`Ilm li al‑Malayin, Beirut, wanted to bring out a new edition of my book al‑'Islam ma`a al‑hayat, I included it also with a title "Hal ta`abbadana al‑Shar` bi al‑hadyfihl yutrak fihi li‑al fasad?" ("Does the Shari'ah command us to make the sacrifice in order to rot?").

There, I have drawn the conclusion that the hady is obligatory only when one can find someone to eat it or where it is possible to preserve the meat through drying or canning. But when the sacrifice is solely carried out for destruction through burning or burying, its permissibility in the present conditions seems doubtful and questionable. Anyone who wishes to see the details of my argument may refer to the second edition of al‑'Islam ma`a al‑hayat.

Later I came across a tradition in al‑ Wasa'il which confirmed my position, and which the author had placed in the Book of udhiyyah (sacrifice) in a section entitled "Bdb ta'akkud istihbab al‑'udhiyyah". The tradition reads:

عن الصادق عن أبائه عن رسول الله (ص) أنه قال: "إنما جُعل هذا الأضحى لتشبع مساكينكم من اللحم فأطعموهم."

From al‑Sadiq (`a), from his ancestors, from the Prophet (s), that he said: "This sacrifice has been instituted to feed the poor among you with meat. So feed them."

Although this tradition is related particularly to voluntary sacrifice, it also throws light on the purpose behind al‑hady al‑wajib.

As mentioned, the first rite in Mina on the 10th is ramyof Jamrat al‑`Aqabah, after that the offering of hady, and then thirdly, halq or taqsir. We have already discussed the third under the head "Halq or Taqsir." We have referred to the rule about doing the halq or taqsir before the dhabh when discussing the order of the rites under the head "In Mina", where the reader will find its details.

When the pilgrim completes his rites in Mina on the day of `Id (such as ramy and dhabh), he returns to Makkah to perform the tawaf al‑ziyarah; then he offers its related rak'atayn and performs the sa'y between Safa and Marwah. According to the four Sunni schools, he returns to Mina after that tawaf and everything becomes permissible to him thereupon, even sex. According to the Imamiyyah, he has to perform another tawaf the tawaf al‑nisa', and offer its related rak'atayn. Sex does not become permissible to the pilgrim, from the Imamiyyah viewpoint, without this tawafwhich we have already discussed in detail above.

The Night at Mina

After completing the tawaf, the pilgrim must return to Mina during what are called Layali al‑Tashriq, which are the nights of the llth, 12th, and 13th‑‑with the exception of him who being in a hurry departs after midday and before sunset on the 12th; there being nothing against him who leaves under these circumstances on the third day, in accordance with the verse:

فَمَنْ تَعَجَّلَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ فَلَا إِثْمَ عَلَيْهِ

...He that departs on the second day incurs no sin .... (2:203)

According to Abu Hanifah, to stay overnight in Mina is Sunnah not wajib. Those who consider it wajibagree that it is a rite and not a rukn. They disagree, however, regarding the necessity of kaffarah upon the defaulter. According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, there is none; according to al‑Shafi`i, a mudd (al‑Tadhkirah, al‑Mughni, Fiqh al‑Sunnah); and according to Malikis, a sacrifice (al‑Zarqani's sharh of Malik's Muwatta').

According to the Irnamiyyah, "If one spends the night at a place other than Mina, there is nothing upon him if he spends it at Makkah praying all the night until morning; but if the night is spent there without prayer, or somewhere else, in prayer or otherwise, he must sacrifice a sheep, even if the default was on account of oversight or ignorance". (al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim's Manahij al‑nasikin).

There is no obligatory rite for the nights in Mina, though spending them in prayer and worship in mustahabb.

Ramy during the Ayyam al‑Tashriq

The schools agree that there is no rite except ramy of the three jimar every day during the three days called ayyam al‑tashriq, regardless of whether the pilgrim is performing Hajj al‑tamattu; al‑'ifrad or al‑qiran. Asto the number of pebbles and other things they have been mentioned under "Jamrat al‑`Aqabah."

According to the Imamiyyah, the time of ramy on each of the three days extends from sunrise until sunset, midday being the preferable hour. The other schools say that it extends from midday until sunset, and if done earlier should be repeated. Abu Hanifah permits ramy before midday only on the third day. Ramy after sunset is permissible only for those with a [valid] excuse.

All the five schools are in consensus about the number of jimar and the way of performing the ramy on the three days. Below is the way of its performance as described by al‑Tadhkirah and al‑Mughni.

The pilgrim performs ramy on each of the three days by throwing 21 pebbles, seven in each of the three times. He begins at the first jamrah, al‑Jamrat al‑'Ula, which is the farthest of them from Makkah and nearer to Masjid al‑Khayf. It is mustahabb to toss the pebble in a fashion called hadhf1, from the left side standing at Batn al‑Masil, and to say takbir with every pebble that is thrown and to pray.

After that, he proceeds to the second jamrah, called al‑Jamrat al‑Wusta, halts at the left side of the way, and, facing the Qiblah, praises Allah and prays for blessings upon the Prophet (s), then moving ahead a little prays, and then throws the pebbles in the same way as above, then pauses and prays after the last pebble.

Then he moves on to the third point called Jamrat al‑`Aqabah, and performs the rite of ramy as before, without any pause after finishing. With this the rites of ramy for the day are complete. 2

The total number of pebbles thrown on the three days in 63 (that is, if one spends the night of the 13th in Mina), 21 each day.

With the seven thrown on the day of `Id the total number is 70.

The author of al‑Tadhkirah, after the above description, says that there is no difference of opinion about it. The author of al‑Mughni makes a similar remark, adding that Malik has opposed the raising of hands.

The description of the rites of ramy given by the author of al‑Mughni is similar if not exactly the same as the one given above by the author of al‑Tadhkirah.

All schools, except Abu Hanifah, agree about the order of the ramy of the jimar, and that if one of them is stoned out of turn, then it is obligatory to repeat the rite in the correct order. Abu Hanifah says that the order is not binding. (al‑Tadhkirah, al‑Mughni)

The ramy may be performed on foot or from a mount, though the former is better. It is permissible for one who has an excuse that someone else may perform it for him, and there is nothing upon one if he omits the takbir, the prayer or the pause after the second jamrah.

If the ramy is delayed by a day intentionally, or on account of ignorance or oversight, or is put over completely until the last day of Tashriq and is performed on a single day, the pilgrim does not incur a kaffarah according to the Shafi`is and the Malikis. Abu Hanifah says that if one, two, or three pebbles are delayed by a day, for every pebble delayed a poor man must be fed; if four are delayed by a day, a sacrifice becomes essential.

All the four schools are in consensus that if one does not perform the ramy at all until the days of Tashriq are past, he is not obliged to perform the rite later any time. But they disagree as to the related kaffarah, which, according to the Malikis is sacrifice regardless of some‑‑even one‑‑or all of the pebbles being omitted; according to the Hanafis the sacrifice is required for omitting all, and for fewer one must feed a poor man for every pebble omitted.

The kaffarah according to Shafi'is is a mudd of food for every pebble if two are omitted; for three a sacrifice becomes obligatory. (Ibn Rushd's Bidayah, al‑Mughni)

The Imamiyyah say, if the ramy of one or more jimar is forgotten, the rite must be performed during the days of Tashriq; but if forgotten altogether until one reaches Makkah, the pilgrim is obliged to return to Mina to perform them if the days of Tashriq are not past; otherwise he must perform the rite himself the following year, or depute another to perform it; in any case there is no kaffarah upon him. (al‑Tadhkirah) This agrees with the fatawa of al‑Sayyid al‑Hakim and al‑Sayyid al‑Khu'i, with the difference that the former regards the legal grounds in favour of the obligation of completion of the rite as stronger (aqwa), whereas the latter considers it as dictated by caution (ahwat), and both agree that intentional omission of ramy does not invalidate the Hajj.

We referred earlier to the consensus of all the schools that it is sufficient for the Hajj pilgrim to remain for only two days of Tashriq in Mina and that he may depart before the sunset on 12th; if he remains until sunset, it is obligatory upon him to stay overnight and perform the rite of ramy on the 13th. The Imdmiyyah, however, say that the permissibility of leaving on the 12th is only for one who has not violated the prohibition on hunting and sex in the state of ihram; otherwise he is obliged to remain in Mina on the night of the 13th.

Offering salat in the Masjid al‑Khayf at Mina is mustahabb, so also on the hill called Khayf. (al‑Tadhkirah)

On returning to Makkah after the rites of Mina, it is, according to Imamis and Malikis, mustahabb to perform the tawaf al‑wada; which, according to Hanafis and Hanbal is, is wajib for non‑Makkans and those who do not wish to stay on in Makkah after returning from Mina. There is no tawaf al‑wada; nor any fidyah, for women who enter their periods before the departure, even from the viewpoint of those who consider the tawaf as obligatory; however, it is mustahabb for her to bid farewell to the House from the door nearest to it and without entering al‑Masjid al‑Haram.

Here we conclude the discussion about the rites of Hajj.