Biochemistry

Nucleotides are the actual physical molecular structures of the two nucleic acids i.e. DNA and RNA. Nucleotides have three separate molecular components a sugar DNA = deoxynucleic acid which means it has one less OH group than RNA = ribonucleic acid. RNA has two OH side groups attached to the pentose (five sided) hetero-cyclic closed ring while DNA has one OH- and one H+. The missing oxygen or oxo side group is used as a hydrolyzing agent (synthesis of one H2O molecule) for dissolving or adding the three types of phosphates groups (monophosphates = PO4-, diphosphates = P2O8-, and triphosphates = P3012-. The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the "backbone of the twisted double helix strands which are connected by the 2 purine and 3 pyrimidine bases. Standard Central Dogma has consistently demonstrated the purine nucleotide adenosine family bonds with the pyrimidine family thymidine, with two hydrogen bonds connecting the A+T covalent pair; in DNA the purine guanosine family has a triple bond with the pyrimidine Cytidine family i.e. G+C. In the current schema DNA ATGC substitutes a second partner for adenosine i.e. uricidine family replaces the thymidine family. The G+C triple bonded pairing stays the same in the RNA version of the genetic code. The DNA (ATGC) and RNA (AUGC) nucleic acids are the molecular structures which make up the "degenerate" 64 triplet i.e. 3 consecutive nucleotides = 1 codon. There are 64 codons in both the DNA and RNA genetic codes but my group Novagon DNA has spent the last nine years demonstrating the DNA/RNA Genetic Code is missing one purine family i.e. inosine family and nature's true three dimensional has six nucleotides or three pairs of covalent purine-pyrmidine pairings e.g. A1+T1, U1+ I1, C1+G1 and T2+A2, I2+C2, U2+G2. This combined dRNA code accounts for the mysterious wobble anti-codons pairings which are essential to the synthesis of the protein secondary structures which to date has been totally handled by the AUGC RNA code. Novagon's triple helix genetic code accounts for many unexplained transcription and translation events which occur in both 3' UTR and 5'UTR (untranslated protein exon gene sequences. i.e. alternative splice sites, A to I and C to U post transcriptional editing of original DNA template strands which totally contradicts the foundation of the Central Dogma Theory which declares a one way linear relationship of DNA to RNA to Protein Polypeptides. mRNA transcripts can be changed from the original DNA amino acid peptide synthesis "production request" if local conditions warrant amino acid substitutions which are highly likely to create SNP (single nucleotide polymorphic mutations) which underlie many genetic and metabolic disorders and diseases. DNA appears to be mainly responsible for faithful replication of gene sequences paramount for passing down phenotype instruction sets such that inheritance of genetic material from generation to generation is accurately encoded and decoded with minuscule mutational errors which often lead to expanded protein and enzyme functionality. RNA on the other hand is the active, operational processes involved in the nucleus, cytoplasm and extracellular matrix in making proteins, nucleic acids, and quite possibly carbohydrate and lipid macromolecules essential for cellular tissue, organ, and organismic or species health and fitness for continued phylogenetic growth and expansion. In a nutshell nucleotides are the actual atomic-molecular structures including the all important functional side groups which are the component building blocks for the DNA and RNA nucleic acids which in turn are the basis of the DNA and RNA genetic codes. It is quite ironic that only the base pairs (purine+pyrmidine) are used in the actual encoding and decoding of high throughput proteins, enzymes, hormones, and steroids which have never made a synthetic final product of genetically engineered prescription drugs or food crops which did not have serious adverse, unexpected side effects that frequently resulted in fatalities and inborn errors of metabolic mutations. Another related irony is how the class of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides were first synthesized by nature over a 2.1 to 3.5 billion year time frame. In purine synthesis de novo i.e. from scratch, the closed purine hetero-cyclic base was synthesized only after the PRPP sugar + phosphate components were already assembled. So nature's sugar, phosphate, base has been replaced by scientific man's base, sugar, phosphate order which might be having a significant impact even though the salvage (recycled) and catabolic degradation processes have increased the efficiency of anabolic synthesis and catabolic degradation of the nucleotides, nucleic acids, and amino acids involved in the mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA transcription, translation, and ribosomal protein folding processes.

The five amino acid families in amino acid biosynthesis are the serine family, the aspartate family, the pyruvate family, the alpha-ketoglutarate family, and the aromatic family. These families form the core building blocks for synthesizing all the essential amino acids required by living organisms.

The two electron carrier molecules that feed electrons into the electron transport chain are NADH and FADH2. These molecules are produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, respectively. The electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are then transferred to the electron transport chain to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

The prothrombin and fibrinogen of blood plasma are forrmed in liver with the help of vit.k.hence defisiency not only of these proteins but also of vit.k causes haemophilia in which blood clotting takes place so rapidly causes death of a patient.

Rennin is important in infants for digesting milk proteins, particularly in breaking down casein in cow's milk. It helps coagulate milk in the stomach, which can lead to better digestion and absorption of nutrients. Infants have higher levels of rennin to aid in the digestion of milk proteins until their digestive system matures.

Yes, nucleotides are organic molecules. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms, which are the elements that characterize organic compounds. Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA, essential for cellular functions in all living organisms.

Amino acids are said to be amphoteric because they both have a basic group (amine: NH2/NH3+) and an acid group (carboxylic acid

The word is used to describe a chemical compound that may behave either as an acid or a base depending on the environment. As examples, zinc oxides and hydroxides behave as acids in alkaline solutions and bases in acidic solutions.

Amino acids are amphoteric organic acids that contain the amine group, -NH2 and the carboxylic acid group -COOH. Amine groups are basic ( you could say they are a modified form of the ammonia molecule) and carboxylic acid groups are, let's see, acid.

As an example of the amphoteric nature of an amino acid, we can look at Glycine, which is chemically, the simplest of the amino acids.

Glycine has the formula H2NCH2COOH (C2H5NO2). In this case, Glycine has the amine group -NH2 (H2N) that is basic in nature on one section of the molecule, and the carboxylate group( -COOH) that is acidic in nature on another section. Both these groups are attached to the same carbon atom. COOH/COO-)

Acetic acid is indeed an acid, but not an amino acid.

The four major elements found in organisms are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements make up the majority of biological molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are essential for life.

"It might not please many environmentalists, but a major energy company is adding solar-thermal power to a coal plant and says this could be the cost-effective way to produce energy while lowering CO2 emissions. Abengoa Solar and Xcel Energy, Colorado's largest electrical utility, have begun modifying the coal plant, which is based near Grand Junction, Colorado. Under the design, parabolic troughs will be used to preheat water that will be fed into the coal plant's boilers, where coal is burned to turn the water into steam. Cost savings comes from using existing turbines and generators and from operating at higher efficiencies, since the turbines and generators in solar-thermal plants are normally optimized to run at the lower temperatures generated by parabolic mirrors."

The percentage of pesticides in our food varies depending on the type of food and farming practices. Generally, the percentage is low and regulated by government agencies to ensure safety levels for consumption. Washing and properly preparing food can help reduce pesticide residues.

When two amino acids combine via a dehydration reaction, a peptide bond is formed between them. One amino acid donates a hydrogen atom (-H) and the other donates a hydroxyl group (-OH), resulting in the elimination of a water molecule. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide.

A hydrophobic amino acid has a non-polar side chain that repels water molecules. In an aqueous environment, hydrophobic amino acids tend to cluster together or associate with other non-polar molecules to minimize contact with water. This behavior helps in protein folding and stability.

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. It is based on the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. A lower pH value indicates a higher concentration of hydrogen ions, making the solution more acidic, while a higher pH value indicates a lower concentration of hydrogen ions, making the solution more basic.

Sorption is the process in which one substance takes up and holds another by either absorption or adsorption.

A cryopump is a vacuum pump that traps gases and vapours by condensing them on a cold surface. They are only effective on some gases, depending on the freezing and boiling points of the gas relative to the cryopump's temperature.

The only difference between the two processes that I have observed is the methods in which they trap the gases. Also, sorption is a process while cryopump is a machine.

An example of a material that uses sorption or has a high adsorption rate is zeolite.

When an enzyme and substrate come together, it is called the enzyme-substrate complex. This complex is a temporary intermediate state in which the enzyme binds to the substrate to catalyze a chemical reaction.

It is called protein denaturation when heat causes the protein's structure to unfold and lose its functional shape. This can result in the loss of the protein's biological activity or ability to perform its intended function.

DNA plays an important role in DNA replication, where the molecule is duplicated during cell division. It is also involved in transcription, where genetic information is copied from DNA to RNA. DNA is crucial in translation, where the information in mRNA is used to synthesize proteins. Lastly, DNA is essential in DNA repair mechanisms, which help to correct any errors or damage to the genetic material.

Enzymes act as biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. They are specific in their function, recognizing only particular substrates, and they are not consumed or changed during the reaction. This allows them to be used repeatedly in cellular processes.

In the bloodstream, the beta form of D-glucose predominates over the alpha form. This is because the beta form is more stable and less likely to convert to the alpha form due to the presence of enzymes that help maintain this equilibrium.

pasteurization, this is mainly used for milk or milk products.

Growth hormone promotes growth by stimulating cell growth and division, while growth hormone releasing hormone triggers the release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland. By using both hormones together, a synergistic effect can be achieved to maximize growth-promoting benefits in children with short statures.

Two monosaccharides are needed to form one maltose molecule. Specifically, maltose is comprised of two glucose molecules joined together through a condensation reaction, which releases a molecule of water.

Magnesium can decrease the absorption of hydrochlorothiazide when taken together, affecting the effectiveness of the medication. It is recommended to separate the doses by at least 2 hours to avoid this interaction. Monitoring for any signs of low potassium levels is also important when taking these medications together.