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Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the study of the structure, composition and chemical processes in all living organisms. It covers the structures and functions of various cellular components, including proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids, and other biomolecules.
8,065 Questions
What makes alleles of the same gene different from each other?
Alleles of the same gene have differences in their specific DNA sequences, which can result in changes in the protein that they code for. These genetic variations can lead to differences in traits or characteristics in organisms that possess different alleles of the same gene.
What makes up the outside of the dna ladder?
The outside of the DNA ladder is made up of a sugar-phosphate backbone. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, which alternates with phosphate groups to form the backbone. The nitrogenous bases are attached to this sugar-phosphate backbone on the inside of the ladder.
Is Heller's test qualitative or quantitative?
Heller's test is a qualitative test. It is used to detect the presence of blood in the stool, typically caused by gastrointestinal bleeding. The test involves observing a color change in the stool sample when it comes into contact with certain reagents.
Difference between vitamin A1 and A2?
Vitamin A1 is the most common form of vitamin A found in animal sources like eggs and liver, while vitamin A2 is found in smaller amounts in dairy sources like milk and certain types of cheese. Both forms can be converted to the active form of vitamin A (retinol) in the body, but vitamin A2 is believed to have a slightly different absorption rate and metabolic fate compared to vitamin A1.
Can you take a multi vitamin with b50?
Yes, it is generally safe to take a multivitamin and a B complex supplement (like B50) together. However, be cautious of exceeding your daily recommended intake of certain vitamins or minerals, particularly if both supplements contain similar nutrients. It's always best to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.
How has the yeast been utilized to change the course of history?
Yeast has been utilized in fermentation processes for thousands of years, leading to the production of alcohol, bread, and other fermented foods. This has had a significant impact on human culture, economy, and even helped preserve food. Yeast has also been used in scientific research and biotechnological applications, contributing to advancements in medicine, genetics, and biofuel production.
Does B 12 vitamins helps pass a drug test?
No, B12 vitamins do not help pass a drug test. Drug tests are designed to detect specific substances in the body, and taking B12 vitamins will not affect the results of the test. It is best to avoid drugs altogether if you know you will be taking a drug test.
Does smiling affect brain chemistry?
Yes, smiling can increase the release of endorphins, serotonin, and dopamine in the brain, which are chemicals associated with feelings of happiness and well-being. This can help reduce stress and improve mood.
Cells need signals to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities in response to changes in the environment. Signals help cells regulate their functions, maintain homeostasis, and carry out various processes such as growth, division, and differentiation.
What vitamins you need to intake if are skin are dry?
If your skin is dry, consider increasing your intake of vitamins A, C, and E. Vitamin A helps promote skin cell turnover, vitamin C aids in collagen production for skin hydration, and vitamin E provides antioxidant protection to maintain skin health. Additionally, make sure you are staying well-hydrated and using a moisturizer suitable for dry skin.
How should lactase enzyme tablets be taken?
Lactase enzyme tablets should be taken with your first bite or sip of dairy-containing food or beverage. Follow the dosage instructions provided on the product packaging or as directed by your healthcare provider. It's best to consult a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.
What is the effect of propagation?
Propagation is any number of ways that you can effectively reproduce a plant. Propagation can be achived through digging up and dividing bulbs on such plants as hostas and daffodils. Another way of propagtion is through cloning a plant with stem cutting. On certain plants you can cut off a section of a stem, dip it in a rooting hormone, and replant it and after a number of days or weeks it will grow roots and turn into an exact copy of the original plant. Place the cutting in pre moistened soil and only water it by slightly misting the leaves with a sprayer. Cuttings need high humidity and non-direct sunlight for best results. It is usually best to place some sort of a dome over the cutting to keep humidity in. Flourescent lights work great for cloning. But if you put it outside, put it in a place where it does not receive full sun. Propagation can also be achieved through collecting and planting the seeds from a plant. Although be aware that most store bought plants are hybrids and the resulting plant grown from a seed collected of it will often not grow to be the same exact plant you collected the seed from.
Which term does not describe patterns in a poem?
Syntax. Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence to convey meaning, whereas patterns in a poem may refer to rhyme scheme, meter, or structure.
What is a non-enzyme substance that emulsifies fats?
Lecithin is a non-enzyme substance that emulsifies fats. It naturally occurs in egg yolks, cheese, and butter. It can be purchased in liquid, gelcap, or granular form at natural health food stores. Dieters love lecithin because of its emulsifying effect on fat. Accompanied by an appropriate exercise program, Lecithin helps burn fat more quickly. Best results occur with 4,000+ mg daily accompanied with exercise. (See related Link)
What are the antimicrobial activity of kigelia africana?
ANTIMICROBIAL EVALUATION OF KIGELIA AFRICANA(LAM)
The evaluation of the activity of the aqueous, methanol and chloroform extracts of the bark of the Kigelia africana(Lam) was tested against E. coli, Enterobacter aerogens,Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Proteus vulgaris,Pseudomonas aeruginosa(Gram-negative), Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus (Gram-positive) by disc diffusion method. The methanol extracts presented a higher activity than the aqueous and chloroform extracts. It exhibits the greatest activity against Salmonella typhi and Proteus vulgarismoderate activity against E. coli,Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus. The remaining strains viz., Enterobacter aerogens, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were presented less activity. The inhibition zone was recorded and compared with standard antibiotic drug streptomycin. Results support the traditional use of Kigelia africana (Lam) bark as a good source of antimicrobial agent.
INTRODUCTION
Antimicrobial properties of medicinal plants are being increasingly reported from different parts of the world (Saxena and Sharma, 1999; Ahmad and Beg, 2001). Various medicinal plants have been used for years in daily life to treat diseases all over the world. It has been used as a source of medicine. Higher plants, as source of medicinal compounds, have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient time (Farombi, 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are natural products origin and natural products play an important role in drug development programmes in the pharmaceutical industry (Baker et al., 1995).
The success story of chemotheraphy lies in the continuous search for new drugs to counter the challenge posed by resistant strains of microorganisms (Khan et al., 2003). Antibiotics are sometimes associated with adverse effects on hosts which include hypersensitivity, depletion of beneficial gut, mucosal microorganisms, immuno suppression and allergic reactions (Idose et al., 1968; Ahmed et al., 1998). The investigation of certain indigenous plants for their antimicrobial properties may yield useful (Khan et al., 2003) and there is increasing interest in plants as source of agent to fight microbial diseases and treatment of several infections (Chariandy et al., 1999; Aburjai et al., 2001).
Kigelia africana is one of highly valuable ethnomedicinal plants belonging to the family Bignoniaceae and vernacular name is marachurai. The plant bark is used for rheumatism, dysentery and veneral diseases and also used for ring worm, tape worm, haemorrhaging, malaria, diabetes, pneumonia and tooth ache (Akunyili and Houghton, 1993; Kolodziej, 1997). However to the best of our knowledge, there is no previous study on this particular plant. Therefore, the lack of the information in the literature prompted this investigation in order to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of Kigelia africana.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The medicinal plant Kigelia africana (Lam) bark, used in this study, were collected around Tiruchirappalli district, South India. The collected plant materials were identified at Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli, South India (Mathew, 1983). The bark were shade-dried at room temperature for 10 days.
Extraction Procedure
The dried and powdered plant materials (100 g) were extracted successively with 600 mL of aqueous, methanol and chloroform (1:6 w/v) by using soxhlet extractor for 48 h at a temperature not exceeding the boiling point of the solvent (Lin et al., 1999). The extracts were filtered using Whatman No.1 filter paper and then concentrated in vacuum at 40°C using a Rotary evaporator. Each extracts transferred to glass vials and kept at 4°C before use.
Bacterial Strains
Eight different laboratory bacterial strains were used namely, Escherichia coli,Enterobacter aerogens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi,Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram-negative), Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus (gram-positive). The bacterial strains were supplied by the Department of Microbiology and institute of Basic Medical Science, Chennai, India.
Preparation of Inoculum
The bacterial strains preserved in the nutrient agar at 4°C were revived in nutrient broth (liquid medium) and incubated at 37±1°C for overnight and the suspensions were checked to provide approximately 105 cfu/mL.
Microbiological Tests of Plant Extracts
The disc diffusion assay methods of Iennette (1985) as described by Rosoanaivo and Ratsimanaga-Urverg (1993), Rabe and Van Staden (1997) were used with modification to determine the growth inhibition of bacteria by plant extracts. The diluted bacterial culture (200 μL) was spread over nutrient agar plates using sterile glass L-rod. One hundred microliter of the each extracts was applied per filter paper disc (Whatman No. 1, 6 mm dia) and was allowed to dry before being placed on the layer of the agar plate. Each extracts was tested in triplicate (3 discs/plate) and the plates were inoculated at 37±1°C for 24 h. After incubation, the diameter of inhibition zones and the sensitivity were measured with a caliper. Standard antibiotic of streptomycin (10 mg/disc) was used as reference of positive control.
Statistical Analysis
Random sampling was used for the entire test in triplicates. Calculations were carried out in triplicate with their mean values and standard deviation by using the formula given by Gupta (1977). Positivity index was calculated by comparing the zone of inhibition of bark extracts with standard antibiotics.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The antibacterial activity of Kigelia africanabark extract (aqueous, methanol and chloroform) against Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogens,Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Proteus vulgaris,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus by disc diffusion method showed that the methanolic bark extracts highly affected the activity of Salmonella typhi and Proteus vulgaris
Fig. 1:
Representing the diameter of inhibition zones against various pathogens along with plant extracts
The inhibition against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus was moderate and less inhibition was associated with Enterobacter aerogens, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chloroform extracts inhibited moderate activity against Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus aureus and the other strains exhibited less activity. The aqueous extracts were exhibited less activity of Staphylococcus aureus and all the remaining strains showed very poor activity. These results were compared with standard antibiotic, streptomycin as a standard (Fig. 1).
The aqueous and organic extracts exhibited different activities. Organic extracts showed greater activity than aqueous extract. Because most of the antibacterial principles were either polar or non-polar and were extracted only through the organic solvent medium (John Britto, 2001). It was reported that methanol was a better solvent for the consistent extraction of antimicrobial substances from medicinal plants when compared to other solvents such as aqueous, ethanol, chloroform and hexane (Lin et al., 1999; Ahmad et al., 1998; Eloff, 1998). Present observation suggested that the organic solvent extraction method was suitable to verify antibacterial activity. Similar conclusions were drawn by Krishna et al. (1997) and Singh and Singh (2000) in their studies.
The antibacterial activity of plant extracts can be attributed to not only a single bioactive principle but also due to the combined action of other compounds (Sunayana et al., 2003). A number of phytochemicals have been studied for their antibacterial activity which are potentially useful against infectious diseases. It is clear that the chemical structure of the antimicrobial agents found in higher plants belong to most commonly encountered classes of higher plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoids (Watchter et al., 1999), terpenes (Conveney et al., 1985), terpenoids (Osawa et al., 1990; Habibi et al., 2000) and phenolic acids (Fernandez et al., 1996).
From the results, it can be concluded that plant extracts have great potential as antimicrobial principles against microorganisms and that they can be used in the treatment of infectious disease caused by resistant microorganisms. Kigelia africana showed maximum antibacterial activity and hence this plant can be used to discover bioactive natural products that may serve as leads for the development of new pharmaceuticals. This will also offer a great help in facing the emergence for spread of antimicrobial resistance.
Why is protein destroyed by heating?
Proteins can be denatured by heating, meaning their molecular structure is altered, leading to loss of their functional properties. This changes the shape of the protein, disrupting its ability to function properly. Additionally, high heat can cause proteins to break down into their component amino acids.
What is The first stage of the breakdown of sugar molecules for energy?
The first stage of the breakdown of sugar molecules for energy is glycolysis. During glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH in the process.
Can you mix vitamins up when you take them?
Unless you have a specific problem, a One-A-Day vitamin plus a good diet should be all you need. If you feel you have problem areas, you should consult your doctor for the best program you should be on.
The reactions that require oxygen to obtain chemical energy from glucose occur in the mitochondria of the cell. This process is known as aerobic respiration, where glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
What are the nutritional ingredients in Ensure?
Ensure typically contains essential macronutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, and fats, as well as essential micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. It is enriched with vitamins A, C, D, E, K, B vitamins, and minerals like calcium, potassium, magnesium, and zinc. Ensure also includes a blend of high-quality proteins like milk protein concentrate and soy protein isolate.
Cardiovascular disease risk is greatest for people who tend to store body fat in the?
Abdomen.
The male "beer belly" pattern of fat storage around the abdominal organs is more associated with heart disease than the female pattern of storing it around the hips and buttocks.
Is there a virus that can reanimate a corpse?
No.
A virus (virion) is technically not a living organism. This is because it is incapable of normal metabolic processes including reproduction (cellular division) and respiration. Viruses are only able to replicate or respire if the cell they infect is undergoing those processes itself, since the virus does not produce or contain the necessary proteins (it uses the host cell's). A dead multicellular organism does not undergo respiration or reproduction, or other metabolic process, either, mainly because there is no oxygen available to produce the necessary NTPs (ATP, GTP etc). Since the host cells are not undergoing these vital metabolic processes (they are dead), the virus can't either. Even if a virus mutated enough to produce its own proteins (which is pretty much impossible), dead multicellular organisms would not be able to provide the necessary oxygen. As a result it is biologically impossible for any true virus to reanimate a dead corpse.
In short, viruses (virions) are not 'alive', so are unable to bring life to a dead cell.
What is the empirical formula of a compound that contains 10.52g Ni 4.38g C and 5.10gN?
As usual, go for the moles.
10.42 grams Ni (1 mole Ni/58.69 grams) = 0.1775 moles Ni
4.38 grams C ( 1 mole C/12.01 grams) = 0.36469 moles C
5.10 grams N (1 mole N/14.01 grams) = 0.36403 mole N
Now, the least mole value represents the whole number 1 and it divides the other numbers to get the whole numbers for the subscripts.
0.36469 mole C/0.1775 mole Ni = 2.05, call it 2
0.36403 mole N/0.1775 mole Ni = 2.05, also called 2
As you gave the species order ( though I am not sure of this )
NiC2N2
What causes broccoli leaves to turn yellow?
Because when the Chlorophyll molecules - that gives leaves their Green color - disintegrate they can't make the plant Green anymore - Yellow is the next color to appear and in turn vanish to make way for the Red colors.
What is gluconeogenesis and why is it important?
Gluconeogenesis is the process through which the body synthesizes new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids and glycerol. It is important because it helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting or low-carbohydrate conditions, providing energy for the brain and other tissues that rely on glucose as their primary fuel source.
