Ancient Greece

The Hellenistic kingdoms were a product of the Macedonian generals of Alexander the Great. After his death they individually seized contol of different parts of his empire and continued his Hellenisation policy within their territory. Hellenisation involved establishing Greek cities and promoting Greek (Hellenic) culture. They contested with each other for territory resulting in war and realignment of boundaries and rulership.

Ptolemy, who had seized Egypt which he had governed for Alexander, was the first to declare himself a king, and the others followed suit. Hence the territories became kingdoms, and the term Hellenistic was given to them in modern parlance to indicate that, rather than being ethnically Greek, they were barbarian with a Hellenic (Greek) rulership and cultural veneer, hence Hellenistic.

The Hellenistic Kingdoms changed shape and rulers, but settled down with enduring dynasties in Egypt (sometimes including some coast and islands of the eastern Mediterranean), Syria (included parts of Asia Minor but early on lost the eastern territories of the Middle East and India), and Macedonia (including parts of mainland Greece).

For a map see website:

http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/art/figuresKISH_03_69.gif

These Hellenistic Kingdoms were progressively swallowed up by Rome, beginning with the punitive attack on Macedonia, which had supported Carthage during Hannibal's invasion of Italy - Macedonia was divided into four republics to end its capacity for revolt. Then folowed the rest of Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria culminating in Pompey's capture of Jerusalem. Parts of them were made variously into provinces, tributary republics or tributary kingdoms. Cleopatra Ptolemy was the last Hellenistic ruler of Egypt and, after the defeat of Marc Antony by Octavian, it was made a province of Rome governed by a Roman prefect.

Grain, peas, fava beans, nuts, seed for planting, and similar products could be simply dried and stored in pots with lids to keep vermin out. They were sometimes stored in bags or even by simply piling them up, but it was understood to be bad practice at the time and was only done in situations of oversupply or foolish hoarding. Flour was not stored for very long, normally, but was ground as needed by a miller.

Root crops, fruit, and such things as cabbages could be stored as they were until recently, in root cellers. Some people still do this.

Vegetables were pickled in brine, and the method used at that time actually increased the nutritional value of the food since it did not involve canning or packing in jars, which reduces the nutritional value.

Meats were smoked, salted, or cured by hanging with cultures in ancient times, and the practice continued in the middle ages. Sausage was known to the ancients and is mentioned in medieval texts.

Fish was salted or smoked. It may also have been dried, but I have not seen a reference on this. The salted fish caught in the Atlantic Ocean was carried long distances to inland markets.

Cheese and other fermented milk products were made in ancient times and continued to be made in the medieval. Yogurt was one of these. Swiss cheese was also already in production, as were some other cheeses we see today. Cheese was aged in cellars and caves, and could be kept for years.

Beer, wine, and cider were all commonly made, and mead was also made, though it was more expensive and less often used.

Herbs were dried, as were mushrooms, such fruit as raisins and prunes, and a variety of other foods.

Athenian army The Athenian army was the military force of Athens, one of the major city-states (poleis) of Ancient Greece.

All physically fit citizens were liable for military service from their 18th to 60th years.[1] It was said that the Athenians were so enamored of the pleasures of peaceful life that they preferred to pay mercenaries rather than serve themselves on distant expeditions, and the truth was that there were many Arcadians, Thracians, and many others, from the nations which supply the bulk of the mercenaries, always in Athenian pay in the outlying garrisons.

The organization of the Athenian army was simple: each of the ten Attic tribes[4] sent its own battalion or taxis, which was large or small depending on the total size of the tribe's pants. These taxeis were subdivided into companies or lochoi, around an average of 100 men each. Every taxis was commanded by a tribal-colonel (taxiarches),[5] and each company by a captain (lochagos). The ten strategoi theoretically commanded the whole army together, but usually a special decree of the people's assembly (Ecclesia) often entrusted the supreme command of a force to one commander, or at most to not over three.

The Athenians had also the Scythian police archers to send into any battle near Athens; they could also hire mercenary archers from Crete, but the Greek bows were relatively feeble, only three or four feet long. During and after the Peloponnesian Wars, the use and importance of light troops increased, with the introduction of the peltasts: lightly armoured, if at all, and armed with javelins and a small shield, the pelte. Their effectiveness in battle, even against the best-trained heavy hoplites, was demonstrated by the Athenian generalIphicrates, who annihilated an entire Spartan mora with his peltasts.

A very brief glance at the average infantryman's defensive weapons tells us that to be able to march, maneuver, and fight efficiently in this armor implies that the Athenian soldier is a well-trained athlete. The whole panoply weighs many pounds. The prime parts in the armor are the helmet, the cuirass, the greaves, and the shield. Every able-bodied citizen of moderate means has this outfit hanging in his andronitis, and can don it at brief notice. The HELMET is normally of bronze; it is cut away enough in front to leave the face visible, but sometimes a cautious individual will insist on having movable plates (which can be turned up and down) to protect the cheeks. Across the top there runs a firm metal ridge to catch any hard down-right blow, and set into the ridge is a tall nodding crest either of horsehair or of bright feathers-in either case the joy and glory of the wearer.

[*]Possibly fifty or more-we have no correct means for an exact estimate. [A note from Brett: Looking at web sites where reconstruction of the armor has been done and estimates made (ca. 1999) there seems to be a consistent top end of 70 pounds. Scholarly circles (e.g. Rudolph Storch of the University of Maryland) seem to lock the estimate more tightly, with the consensus saying that a fully armored Hoplite carried between 60 and 70 pounds. Most of this weight seems to be in the cuirass, which in some cases was linen and weighed only 10-15 pounds (the actual thickness is unknown, so the broad range of weight estimate covers the minimum to maximum reasonable thickness). For reference, a modern (2000) soldier is generally limited to 50 pounds of gear when fighting and 70 pounds when marching.]

[+]The "Corinthian" type of helmets came more closely over the face, and the cheek protectors were not movable; these helmets were much like the closed helms of the medieval knights. The Spartans, in their contempt for danger, wore plain pointed steel caps which gave relatively little protection.

Buckled around the soldier's body is the CUIRASS. It comprises a breastplate and a back piece of bronze, joined by thongs, or by straps with a buckle. The metal comes down to the hips. Below it hangs a thick fringe of stout strips of leather strengthened with bright metallic studs, and reaching halfway to the knees. From this point to the knees the legs are bare, but next come the GREAVES, thin pliable plates of bronze fitted to the shape of the leg, and opening at the back. They have to be slipped on, and then are fastened at the knees and ankle with leathern straps.

But the warrior's main protection is his SHIELD. With a strong, large shield you can fight passing well without any regular body armor; while with the best outfit of the latter you are highly vulnerable without your shield. To know how to swing your shield so as to catch every possible blow, to know how to push and lunge with it against an enemy, to know how to knock a man down with it, if needs be, THAT is a good part of the soldier's education. The shield is sometimes round, but more often oval. It is about four feet by the longest diameter. It is made of several layers of heavy bull's hide, firmly corded and riveted together, and has a good metal rim and metal boss in the center. On the inside are two handles so that it can be conveniently wielded on the left arm. These shields are brilliantly painted, and although the Greeks have no heraldic devices, there are all manner of badges and distinguishing marks in vogue. Thus all Theban shields are blazoned with a club; Sicyonian shields are marked with the initial "Sigma" (S), and we note that the Athenian shields are all marked Alpha (A). [*]Earlier Greek shields seem to have been very large and correspondingly heavy. These had only a single handle; and to aid in shifting them they were swung on straps passed over the left shoulder.

[+]This last is a matter of safe inference rather than of positive information.

[*]The object would be to give each man just enough distance to let him make fair use of his lance, and yet have his shield overlap that of his neighbor.

[+]The "phalanx" is sometimes spoken of as a Macedonian invention, but Philip and Alexander simply improved upon an old Greek military formation.

It is an imposing sight when the strategos in charge of the maneuvers, a stately man in a red chlamys, gives the final word "March!"

Loud pipes begin screaming. The long lines of red, blue, and orange plumes nod fiercely together. The sun strikes fire out of thousands of brandished lance tips. The phalanx goes swinging away over the dusty parade ground, the subalterns up and down the files muttering angrily to each inapt recruit to "Keep your distance:" or "Don't advance your shield." The commandant duly orders the "Half turn:" "Left" or "Right turn:" "Formation by squares," and finally the critical "Change front to rear." If this last maneuver is successfully accomplished, the strategos will compliment the drill sergeants; for it is notoriously difficult to turn a ponderous phalanx around and yet make it keep good order. The drilling goes on until the welcome order comes, "Ground arms!" and every perspiring soldier lets his heavy shield slip from his arm upon the ground.

Closer at hand the two armies will fairly spring into unfriendly embrace. The generals have each measured his enemy's line and extended his own to match it. With files of about equal depth, and well-trained men on both sides, the first stage of the death grapple is likely to be a most fearful yet indecisive pushing: the men of the front ranks pressing against each other, shield to shield, glaring out of their helmets like wild beasts against the foeman three feet away, and lunging with their lances at any opening between the hostile shields or above them. The comrades behind wedge in the front ranks closer and closer. Men are crushed to death, probably without a wound, just by this hellish impact. The shouts and yells emitted are deafening. There is an unearthly clashing of steel weapons on bronze armor. Every now and then a shrill, sharp cry tells where a soldier has been stabbed, and has gone down in the press, probably trampled to death instantly. In this way the two writhing, thrusting phalanxes continue to push on one another at sheer deadlock, until a cool observer might well wonder whether the battle would not end simply with mutual extermination.

[*]Any sudden attempt to extend your line BEYOND the foe's, so as to outflank him, would probably have produced so much confusion in your own phalanx as to promise certain disaster. Of course for an inferior force to accept battle by thinning its line, to be able by extending to meet the long lines of the enemy, would involve the greatest risk of being broken through at the center. The best remedy for inferior numbers was manifestly to decline a decisive battle.

What will happen now is easy to predict with assurance up to a certain point. The overlapping right wings will EACH promptly turn the left flank of their enemies, and falling upon the foe front and rear catch them almost helpless. The hoplite is an admirable soldier when standing shoulder to shoulder with his comrades facing his foe; but once beset in the rear he is so wedged in by the press that it is next to impossible for him to turn and fight effectively. Either he will be massacred as he stands or the panic will spread betimes, and simultaneously both left wings will break formation and hurry off the field in little better than flight. Now will come the real test of discipline and deliberate valor. Both centers are holding stoutly. Everything rests on the respective victorious right wings. Either they will foolishly forget that there is still fighting elsewhere on the field, and with ill-timed huzzaing pursue the men they have just routed, make for their camp to plunder it, or worse still, disperse to spoil the slain; or, if they can heed their general's entreaties, keep their ranks, and wheeling around come charging down on the rear of the enemy's center. If one right wing does this, while the hostile right wing has rushed off in heedless pursuit, the battle is infallibly won by the men who have kept their heads; but if both right wings turn back, then the real death grapple comes when these two sets of victors in the first phase of the contest clash together in a decisive grapple.

By this time the original phalanx formations, so orderly, and beautiful, have become utterly shattered. The field is covered by little squares or knots of striking, cursing, raging men-clashing furiously together. If there are any effective reserves, now is the time to fling them into the scale. The hitherto timorous light troops and armor bearers rush up to do what they can. Individual bravery and valor count now to the uttermost. Little by little the contest turns against one side or the other. The crucial moment comes. The losing party begins to fear itself about to be surrounded. Vain are the last exhortations of the officers to rally them. "Every man for himself!" rings the cry; and with one mad impulse the defeated hoplites rush off the field in a rout. Since they have been at close grip with their enemies, and now must turn their ill-protected backs to the pursuing spears, the massacre of the defeated side is sometimes great. Yet not so great as might be imagined. Once fairly beaten, you must strip off helmet and cuirass, cast away shield and spear, and run like a hare. You have lightened yourself now decidedly. But your foe must keep HIS ponderous arms, otherwise he cannot master you, if he overtakes you. Therefore the vanquished can soon distance the victors unless the latter have an unusually efficient cavalry and javelin force. However, the victors are likely to enter the camp of the vanquished, and to celebrate duly that night dividing the plunder.

The final stage of the battle is the trophy: the visible sign on the battlefield that here such-and-such a side was victorious. The limbs are lopped off a tree, and some armor captured from the foe is hung upon it. After indecisive battles sometimes both sides set up trophies; in that case a second battle is likely to settle the question. Then when the victors have recovered from their own happy demoralization, they march into the enemy's country; by burning all the farmsteads, driving off the cattle, filling up the wells, girdling the olive and fruit trees, they reduce the defeated side (that has fled to its fortified town) to desperation. If they have any prisoners, they threaten to put them to death. The result is frequently a treaty of peace in favor of the victors.

[*]In siege warfare Oriental kings had a great advantage over Greek commanders. The former could sacrifice as many of their "slaves" as they pleased, in desperate assaults. The latter had always to bear in mind their accountability at home for any desperate and costly attack. The one really sure means of taking a town is to build a counter wall around it and starve it out,--a slow and very expensive, thought not bloody process. Only when something very great is at stake will a Greek city-state attempt this.[*] There is always another chance, however. Almost every Greek town has a discontented faction within its walls, and many a time there will be a traitor who will betray a gate to the enemy; and then the siege will be suddenly ended in one murderous night.

[*]As in the siege of Potidea (432-429 B.C.), when if Athens had failed to take the place, her hold upon her whole empire would have been jeopardized.

The Athenians will tell us that their citizen hoplites are a match for any soldiers in Greece, except until lately the Spartans, and now (since Leuctra) possibly the Thebans. But Corinthians, Argives, Sicyonians, they can confront more readily. They will also add, quite properly, that the army of Athens is in the main for home defense. She does not claim to be a pre-eminently military state. The glory of Athens has been the mastery of the sea. Our next excursion must surely be to the Peiræus.

The tranitas were placed in the top of the ship, driving the longer oars. The center was reserved for talamitas Zeugites while occupying the bottom of the ship, from the oars of both groups by a gateway in the sides of the trireme. The crew of the ship was 170 rowers and distributed in 54 talamitas Zeugites and 62 tranitas. The rigs were operated by ten sailors, the same number of foot soldiers armed as hoplites who embarked on the galley. The crews were among the last census category of citizens, called thetes, joining sometimes slaves and metics. The commander or trierarch ran the ship. In Athens it was a sailor by profession but a first class citizen of the cost of the ship and crew. The commander, therefore, must count on the close collaboration of a steersman or pilot, who became second in command. The cadre was completed with a slave-driver, responsible for giving orders to the rowers and regular cadence, for what is aided by a flutist, a formal bow, keeper of the navigation from the castle, a steward and several toicarcos occupied by the movements of the rowers.

The sailing of the trireme was performed when not engaged in combat, reaching a speed of five knots. Carrying out a coastal navigation, deep into the open sea only if necessary and avoided travel at night.

All gears of the trireme were dismantled, including the mast. The hulls of the ships lay stored during periods of inoperability and usually during the winter, covered slipways which stood on the docks, where ships were driven by rollers, caulking and cleaning their funds. The arsenal was the place where they were kept rigging, sails and ropes. The names of the ships had the distinction of being always female.

With these boats Athens got its hegemony over the rest of Hellas and the greatest moment of the polis. The two city officials triremes were the Salaminia and Riverside, responsible for transporting the state delegations and communicating warnings to the rest of the fleet.