China in WW2

The way that a country's economy for trade typically develops is first by using a barter system, then by coins and precious metals, and then by fiat money.

Bartering has several problems, most notably the coincidence of needs problem and a wheat-field farmer need what the other produces a direct barter swap is impossible for seasonal fruit that would spoil before the grain harvest.

A solution is to indirectly trade fruit for wheat through a third, "intermediate", commodity: the fruit is exchanged for this when it ripens. If this intermediate commodity doesn't perish and is reliably in demand throughout the year (e.g. copper, gold, or wine) then it can be exchanged for wheat after the harvest.

The function of the intermediate commodity as a store-of-value can be standardized into a widespread commodity money reducing the coincidence of wants problem. By overcoming the limitations of simple barter, a commodity money makes the market in all other commodities more liquid. This is why the Chinese used rice and a standard measure of trade. The resource was readily available; widely (if not entirely) recognized and accepted.

Mao Zedong didn't fight a war with anyone, however he tried to establish a new form of government, and in doing killed between 50 and 70 million people.

Communist Party of China (CPC) Led by Mao Zedong had a civil war with the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) led by Chiang Kai-shek

The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist Party of China (CPC) Led by Mao Zedong .The war began in April 1927, amidst the Northern Expedition. The war represented an ideological split between the Western-supported Nationalist KMT and the Soviet-supported Communist CPC. In the People's Republic of China the war is more commonly known as the "War of Liberation".

The civil war carried on intermittently until the Second Sino-Japanese War interrupted it, resulting in the two parties forming a Second United Front. Japan's campaign was defeated in 1945, marking the end of World War II, and China's full-scale civil war resumed in 1946. After a further four years, 1950 saw a cessation of major hostilities-with the newly founded People's Republic of China controlling mainland China (including Hainan Island), and the Republic of China's jurisdiction being restricted to Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and several outlying Fujianese islands. To this day, since no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, there is controversy as to whether the Civil War has legally ended. Today, the two sides of the Taiwan strait have close economic ties. (Source wikipedia)

Chinese traditionally wear white clothes at funeral, nowadays they also wear black in such occasions. The color red is for happy events, especially for weddings and other celebrations.

The burial of the dead is a very serious matter in Chinese societies. Improper funeral arrangements can cause bad fortune upon the family of the deceased.

Chinese funeral rites and burial customs are determined by the age, the manner of the death, the status and position in society and the marital status of the deceased.

According to Chinese custom, an older person should not show respect to a younger. Thus, if the deceased is a young bachelor his body cannot be brought home but is left in a funeral parlour. His parents cannot offer prayers for their son: being unmarried he has no children to perform these rites either. If a baby or child dies no funeral rites are performed, as respect cannot be shown to a younger person: the child is buried in silence.

Preparations for a funeral often begin before death has occurred. When a death occurs in a family all statues of deities in the house are covered with red paper and mirrors removed from sight, as it is believed that one who sees the reflection of a coffin in a mirror will shortly have a death in their own family. A white cloth will be hung across the doorway of the house and a gong placed on the left of the entrance if the deceased is male and right if female.

Before being placed in the coffin, the corpse is cleaned with a damp towel, dusted with talcum powder and dressed in their best clothes. The body is completely dressed, including footwear, and cosmetics if female, but it is not dressed in red clothes (as this will cause the corpse to become a ghost): white, black, brown or blue are the usual colours used. Before being placed in the coffin the corpse's face is covered with a yellow cloth and the body with a light blue one.

The wake

The coffin is placed on its own stand either in the house, if the person has died at home, or in the courtyard outside the house, if the person has died away from home. The coffin is placed with the head of the deceased facing the inside of the house resting about a foot from the ground on two stools, and wreaths, gifts and a portrait or photograph of the deceased are placed at the head of the coffin. The coffin is not sealed during the wake. Food is placed in front of the coffin as an offering to the deceased. The deceased's comb will be broken into halves, one part placed in the coffin, one part retained by the family.

During the wake, the family does not wear jewellery or red clothing; red is the colour of happiness. Traditionally, children and grandchildren of the deceased did not cut their hair for forty-nine days after the date of death, but this custom is usually only observed now by the older generations of Chinese. It is customary for blood relatives and daughters-in-law to wail and cry during mourning as a sign of respect and loyalty to the deceased. Wailing is particularly loud if the deceased has left a large fortune.

At the wake, the family of the deceased gathers around the coffin, positioned according to their order in the family. Special clothing is worn: children and daughters in law wear black (signifying that they grieve the most), grandchildren blue and great grandchildren light blue. Sons-in-law wear brighter colours such as white, as they are considered outsiders. The children and daughters-in-law also wear a hood of sackcloth over their heads. The eldest son sits at the left shoulder of his parent and the deceased's spouse at the right. Later-arriving relatives must crawl on their knees towards the coffin.

An altar, upon which burning incense and a lit white candle are placed, is placed at the foot of the coffin. Joss paper and prayer money, to provide the deceased with sufficient income in the afterlife, are burned continuously throughout the wake. Funeral guests are required to light incense for the deceased and to bow as a sign of respect to the family. There will also be a donation box, as money is always offered as a sign of respect to the family of the deceased: it will also help the family defray the costs of the funeral.

During the wake there will usually be seen a group of people gambling in the front courtyard of the deceased's house: the corpse has to be 'guarded' and gambling helps the guards stay awake during their vigil; it also helps to lessen the grief of the participants.

The length of the wake depends upon the financial resources of the family, but is at least a day to allow time for prayers to be offered. While the coffin is in the house a monk will chant verses from Buddhist or Taoist scriptures at night. It is believed that the souls of the dead face many obstacles and even torments and torture, for the sins they have committed in life, before they are allowed to take their place in the afterlife: prayers, chanting and rituals offered by the monks help to smooth the passage of the deceased's soul into heaven. These prayers are accompanied by music played on the gong, flute and trumpet.

Funeral ceremony

When the prayer ceremonies are over the wailing of the mourners reaches a crescendo and the coffin is nailed shut. The sealing represents the separation of the dead from the living. Yellow and white 'holy' papers are pasted on the coffin to protect the body being disturbed by malign spirits. During the sealing of the coffin all present turn away from the coffin, as watching a coffin being sealed is considered very unlucky. The coffin is then carried (with the head of the deceased facing forward) from the house (being a pallbearer is considered to bestow the blessing of the deceased upon the bearer, thus there are usually many volunteers) using a piece of wood tied over the coffin.

The coffin is not carried directly to the cemetery but is first placed on the side of the road outside the house, where more prayers are offered and papers scattered. The coffin is placed in a hearse, which moves slowly for a mile, with the eldest son and family members following behind with their heads touching the hearse. If there are many relatives, a white piece of cloth links the hearse to family members behind. Order in the funeral procession follows the order of status in the family. A white piece of cloth is tied to vehicles accompanying the hearse, or a white piece of paper may be pasted on their windshields. The eldest son usually sits next to the coffin. A long, lit joss stick is held throughout the journey, symbolizing the soul of the deceased, and is relit immediately if it goes out.

Occasionally paper models of objects such as cars, statues ships etc. are carried with the procession symbolizing the wealth of the deceased's family. If the procession needs to cross water, the deceased must be informed that the cortege is to cross it, as it is believed that if not informed, the soul of the dead will not be able to cross the water.

The burial

Chinese cemeteries are generally located on hillsides as this is thought to improve the feng shui. The further up the hill the grave is, the better its situation is thought to be.

When the procession arrives at the graveside it is taken down from the hearse and, again, all present turn away from the coffin, and also turn away when it is lowered into the grave. Family members and other relatives throw a handful of earth into the grave before it is filled. After the funeral, all clothes worn by the mourners will be burned in order to avoid the bad luck associated with death. After the coffin is buried, the keeper of the cemetery will also offer prayers for the deceased. Family members and relatives are presented with a red packet (a sign of gratitude from the deceased family, and the money contained in it must be spent) and a white towel, also as a sign of gratitude but also for funeral guests to wipe off perspiration.

The eldest son of the deceased will retrieve some earth from the grave to be placed in an incense holder, and the family at home using an ancestral tablet will worship the deceased.

Mourning

Although the funeral rites are now over, the period of mourning by the family continues for a hundred days. A piece of coloured cloth is worn on the sleeve of each of the family members for the hundred days to signify mourning: black by the deceased's children, blue by the grandchildren and green by the great-grandchildren. More traditional families will wear these cloths for up to 3 years. A period of mourning is not expected if children die, and a husband is not compelled to mourn the passing of his wife.

The return of the deceased

Chinese belief holds that seven days after the death of a family member the soul of the departed will return to their home. A red plaque with suitable inscription may be placed outside the house at this time to ensure the soul does not become lost.

On the day of the return of the soul, family members are expected to remain in their rooms. Flour or talcum powder may be dusted on the floor of the entrance hall of the home to detect the visit of the deceased.

It can't be proved for certain but he had always been healthy and suddenly it was announced that he had died. He was a reformer and was opposed by the Dowager Empress Tzu Tzi who had dominated the government for many years. She was very old and dying herself. After his death was announced she issued a decree naming his three year old nephew as emperor. She then died herself, the next day. That makes his death very suspicious. He was probably poisoned but it can't be proved. Michael Montagne

The result of the study turned up at a interesting time---several days before the 100 anniversary of the death of His Majesty. This is only a coincidence, but the reformist Emperor Guangxu can now finally rest in peace.