Computer Programming

Data Anomaly are the logical or structural in database.For example, if we have a multiple instances of same information in a table, it may happen that the data is not consistent after operations like update. This may result in the loss od data integrity.

A proprietary algorithm is a sequence of steps or rules performed to achieve a specific goal, belonging to a commercial company as it has been trademarked or patented by its owner. An example is a search engine ranking algorithm for one of the commercial web search engines - some of the details may be readily available to the public but the source code is not freely available to protect company interests and prevent misuse.

The image resolution of a picture is broken into pixels. The amount of pixels in the picture depends on the size of the print. There are approximately 100 pixels per inch in a picture.

Think of the electronic or internet economy as having three primary components:

(1) Electronic Commerce (e-Commerce)

Any transaction completed over a computer-mediated network that transfers ownership of, or rights to use, goods or services. The value of goods and services sold on-line. The term "on-line" includes the use of the Internet, Intranet, and Extranet, as well as proprietary information that runs over systems such as Electronic Data Interchanges (EDI) networks.

(2) Electronic business supporting infrastructure

The economic infrastructure that is used to support electronic business processes and conduct electronic commerce transactions. It includes hardware, software, telecommunication networks, support services, and human capital used in electronic business and commerce.

(3) Electronic business processes

Processes that a business organization conducts over a computer-mediated network. Business organizations include any for-profit, governmental, or nonprofit entity. Examples of on-line e-business processes include the following:

* Purchasing

* Selling

* Vendor-managed inventory

* Production management

* Logistics

* Communication and Support Services such as on-line training and recruiting

Stenographers transcribe proceedings, usually in the legal or medical areas. They must learn to use abbreviated language so they can transcribe verbal proceedings rapidly. They must also be able to proofread their transcriptions.

To make it easier for people with speech and written communication difficulties to express themselves. The printer consisted of a pad with symbols that corresponded to words, and pressing them in sequence could create sentences.

guides

SEO is one of the marketing techniques where you can establish your business in internet marketing world. The advantage of Getting Involve to SEO companies is that it will help your industry be more profitable just by using search engine sites like Google.com, Yahoo.com, and Bing.com. If a a SEO company can not maintain the competition on this following search engine sites it will be hard for your industry to be on the ranking list.

Symbolic languages have a near 1:1 relationship with the resultant machine code, thus the translation from source code to machine code is extremely trivial. For instance, the move instruction maps to several operation codes (opcodes) depending on whether the source and destination are working memory addresses or register addresses. However, there is no need to map each opcode to a separate mnemonic because the assembler can deduce the exact opcode from the operands alone. Thus all moves can be symbolised with a MOV mnemonic. So aside from choosing between opcode variants, translation from source code to machine code is relatively simple to program.

High-level languages have a higher degree of abstraction than symbolic languages (which is what we mean by high-level). A single high-level statement may generate many dozens of low-level instructions thus translation from source to machine code is far from trivial. However, programs don't need to be written in minute detail because the compiler handles all the machine-level details, many of which are highly repetitive (move values into registers, perform an operation upon those registers, act upon the result, rinse and repeat). This allows the programmer to express his ideas in code more freely.

To be a good programmer in C++, your logic making should b strong. You should have a good memory, enough to remember the syntax of codes for c++. And most important of all, you should do regular practice. The more you will practice, more you will master it.

A package is basically a group of related classes.

Programmed learning

Programmed learning has been announced as a revolution in educational techniques.

Programmed learning has a long past but only a short history.

Historical background:

1. Contribution of Socrates: Socrates was one of the earliest programmers who

developed a program in Geometry. This was recorded by Plato.

2. Contribution of S.L. Pressey: In Ohio University S.L.Pressey (1926-27) was first to

devise a machine which could teach as well as test.

3. B.F. Skinner's contribution: Programmed learning got historical momentum only

after the publication of Skinner's paper "The Silence of Learning and the Art of

Teaching" in 1954.

4. Contribution of co-workers of Skinner: The associates and co-workers of Prof.

Skinner gave a movement for programmed instruction by publishing a number of

papers on its various aspects based mainly on laboratory experimental observations.

Concept of Programmed Learning

Programmed learning represents a highly individualized and systematic instructional strategy

for class-room instructions as well as self-learning. It is now considered as one of the most

important innovations in the field of education.

Susan Markle's view: "Programmed leaning is a method of designing a reproducible

sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on behavior of

each and every acceptable student."

Harold W. Bernard's view: "Programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional

material in progressive sequences".

Michael J. Apter's view: "Programmed instruction is a method of instruction in which the

information to be taught is broken down into small units which are to be presented to the

student (usually in written form) in a carefully planned sequence. Each unit or 'frame'

contains not only conformation but is also terminated with a question."

View of Smith and Moore: "Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material

to be leaned into a series of sequential steps. Usually it moves the student from a familiar

background into a complex and net set of concepts, principles and understanding."

View of Espich and Williams: "Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of

experiences leading to proficiency, in terms of response relationship that has proven to be

effective".

Edgar Dale's view: "Programmed instruction is systematic, step by step, self-instructional

program aimed to ensure the learning of stated behavior".

In the light of the above definitions it can be concluded that programmed learning is a

method of individualized instructions in which the student receives information relating to

his won needs in progressive sequences but in small units.

Characteristics of Programmed learning:

1. Individualized instructions

2. Logical sequence of material

3. Interaction between the learner and the program

4. Immediate knowledge of results

5. Organized nature of knowledge

6. Learner's own speed

7. Constant evaluation

Principles of programmed learning (F.U.Edward in his book" Programmed

Instruction: Techniques and Trends" classified them as:

Mandatory principles Obligatory principles

1. Objective specification 1.Overt/active responding

2. Empirical testing 2.Immediate feedback

3. Self pacing 3.Small step size

Fundamental Principles of Programmed Learning

1. Principle of small steps

2. Principle of active responding

3. Principle of immediate confirmation

4. Principle of self-pacing

5. Principle of evaluation

Styles of Programming(Types of program)

Prominent important conventional styles of programming are as under:

1. Linear Programming

2. Branching Programming

3. Mathetics

4. Computer-assisted instruction

5. Learner-controlled instruction

Here we shall discuss the first two.

1. Linear or extrinsic style of programming

The linear style of programming was developed by Skinner and his associates(1954).This

is also known as the Skinnerian style of programming. The techniques associated with

this style of programming are based on the principle that the learner's original response

should be gradually altered or shaped until he meets some standard of acceptable

performance.

Basic assumptions of linear programming:

1. Activeness

2. Small units

3. Immediate reinforcement

4. Psychological arrangement of a contents

5. Freedom

6. Hindrance by errors

Features or advantages of linear style of programming:

1. Linear arrangement

2. Small steps

3. Controlled responses

4. Response is emphasized

5. Structural responses

6. Active responding

7. Immediate feedback

8. Prompting

9. Self-pacing

10. Minimum errors

11. Simple mechanism

12. Best suited in certain subject areas

13. Discouraging cheating

14. Skip-linear program

Applications of Linear Program: Linear programs have effectively been used in the

following situations:

1. Small children

2. Slow learner

3. Homogenous

4. Hierarchical order

5. Immediate feedback

6. Inadequate initial behavior

7. Difficult material

8. Specific terminology

9. Less motivated teachers

10. Remedial instruction and self-study

11. Complete mastery

Limitations of Linear Style of Programming:

1. Lack of motivation

2. No freedom of choice

3. No development of discriminative power

4. Encouraging guess work

5. Serial order learning

6. Difficulty in finding background

7. Not student centered

8. No specified role of teacher

9. Teacher-proof program

2. Branching or intrinsic style of programming:

The branching or intrinsic style (method) of programming was originated by Norman A.

Crowder. He defined branching programming as a program which adapts to the needs of the

student without the medium of an extrinsic device such as computer.

Branching program may be produced for use on a teaching machine or in a book form. The

book form is known as a 'scrambled text' because the pages do not follow in a normal

sequence.

Assumptions of Branching Program:

1. Needs of the learner

2. Wholeness of the content

3. Meaningful units

4. Analysis of the task

5. New material

6. No hindrance by errors

7. Remediation

8. Multiple choice items

9. Sufficient freedom

10. Discrimination

Techniques in Branch Programming (types of branching):

1. Backward branching: It is based on the principle of 'repeating the missed frames'. As

shown in the diagram below the learner from frameNo.1 of the main stream goes to frame

No. 2 of the main steam only if he makes a correct choice. But if he makes a wrong

choice, he is led to remedial frame wherein he is given some more help in understanding

the concept and in solving the solution by a better logic. He will be then directed to the

original frame No. 1 so that he can red it again and answer it correctly in the light of the

remedial material he has received. So the learner who has committed error goes through

the same frame twice (once before the remedial material and once after the remedial

material).

2. Forward branching: In the forward branching, whether the learner makes a wrong

choice or correct choice he will always be going to new pages, thus physically

progressing from page to page.

Principles of branching program:

1. Principle of exposition

2. Principle of diagnosis

3. Principle of remediation

Features or characteristics or advantages of branching program:

1. Based on traditional tutorial method

2. Individualized instruction

3. Larger frame

4. Multiple choice questions

5. Freedom to choose path

6. Alertness of learners

7. Detection and correction of errors

8. Development of discrimination and creativity

9. Useful in concept learning

10. Controlled material

11. Psychological and social motivation

12. Easier to develop frames

13. Teaching and instruction

14. Programmed text

Limitations of branching program:

1. Guessing

2. Difficulty in multiple choice questions

3. Difficulty in arranging the branching sequences

4. Unfeasibility of infinite branching

5. Not suitable for small children

6. Inability to control the student

7. Costly

8. Emphasis on remediation

9. No sequence of pages

10. Suitable feedback

11. Programmer's imagination

unicode or ansic

I try to answer as simple as people can understand. Island Of Information means the same data (such scattered data locations) separated at the different places. Data Anomaly caused by Island Of Information. We can say that Data Anomaly is something wrong with the data or information. Some examples are Modification Anomalies(data cannot be deleted), Insertion Anomalies(data cannot be inserted) and Deletion Anomalies(data cannot be deleted).

Disadvantage:

-time consumption is high

-the distance between the pixels is not equal so we wont get smooth circle

Advantage:

The midpoint method for deriving efficient scan-conversion algorithms to draw geometric curves on raster displays in described. The method is general and is used to transform the nonparametric equation f(x,y) = 0, which describes the curve, into an algorithms that draws the curve. Floating point arithmetic and time-consuming

data segment

strs db 'madam',0

strr db 5 dup(0)

data ends

code segment

assume cs:code,ds:data,es:data

start:mov ax,data

mov ds,ax

mov es,ax

mov cx,6

lea si,strs

lea di,strr

l1:mov al,strs[si]

mov strr[di],al

inc si

dec di

loop l1

mov cx,6

repe cmpsb

jz l3

mov bx,0000h

jmp l4

l3:mov bx,1111h

l4:int 3h

code ends

end start

advantages......

1. you can make anything U want to do, if u understand.

2. there is no difference between computer and ur mind. Both think similar :).

disadvantages.....

1. difficult to make and understand programs.

and worst to find mistake or upgrading the soft-wares and technologies.

2.whole the language will occur between 0 and 1, which is highly difficult to understand.

Crashing.

session

It is that type of binary code where weights are assigned to each symbol position in the code word.

Hybrid compiler is a compiler which translates a human readable source code to an intermediate byte code for later interpretation. So these languages do have both features of a compiler and an interpreter. These types of compilers are commonly known as Just In-time Compilers (JIT).

Java is one good example for these types of compilers.