Oceanography

4 kilometers approximately.

A cold ocean current means less moisture is evaporated into the air, resulting in lower humidity levels. It also means less heat is transferred from the ocean to the atmosphere, leading to cooler air temperatures.

While the oceans cover about 70% of the surface area, they actually hold 96.5% of all the water on Earth. Another 1% of the ground water of the Earth is saline, leaving only 2.5% fresh water. Of the 2.5% fresh, most of it is frozen in glaciers or snow and only about 1% exist in liquid form. Almost all of that fresh water is ground water with only a tiny bit in lakes and streams.

The mantle is the region beneath the Earth's crust and above the core, extending from about 30 to 2,900 kilometers (18 to 1,800 miles) below the Earth's surface. It makes up the largest portion of the Earth's interior by volume.

The Puerto Rico Trench varies in its temperatures. However, it's been recorded as being as cold as below zero there. The Trench is an oceanic trench and it is located in between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Yes, the San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary where two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally. This movement causes earthquakes and has resulted in the offset of the sea floor spreading zone in the region.

The three major surface currents of the ocean are the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Kuroshio Current in the North Pacific, and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in the Southern Ocean. These currents play a significant role in redistributing heat around the globe and influencing regional climates.

There are two types of deep ocean sediments, abyssal clay and biogenous oozes. Abyssal clays are fine-grained sediment, while biogenous ooze is composed of the hard parts of microscopic organisms.

Ocean circulation patterns play a crucial role in moving nutrients and plankton, which are the base of the marine food chain. These patterns can transport plankton to areas where they are needed by higher trophic levels, influencing the distribution and abundance of marine species. Disruptions in ocean circulation can impact the marine food chain by altering nutrient availability and the distribution of species.

This phenomenon is known as La Niña. It can impact global weather patterns by influencing wind patterns and ocean currents, leading to cooler and wetter conditions in some regions and drier conditions in others. La Niña events are part of the broader El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

The Atlantic Ocean receives the greatest volume of fresh water from rivers and other sources due to its size and location, which allows it to collect runoff from a large portion of the Earth's landmass.

That body of water is called an estuary. It is a partially enclosed coastal body of water where rivers or streams flow into and mix with seawater. This mixing of fresh and salt water creates a unique and productive ecosystem.

The salinity of ocean water is primarily due to high concentrations of dissolved salts, such as sodium and chloride. Other substances like magnesium, calcium, and sulfate also contribute to the overall salinity of the oceans. Processes like evaporation, precipitation, and volcanic activity can influence the salinity levels in different regions of the ocean.

Sea floor spreading was not known during Wegener's lifetime because the technology to map the ocean floor, such as sonar mapping, did not exist yet. Without this technology, scientists were unable to detect the mid-ocean ridges where sea floor spreading takes place. Additionally, Wegener's theory of continental drift was met with skepticism and not widely accepted during his time, which may have deterred further exploration into related concepts like sea floor spreading.

Large streams of surface water are called rivers. Rivers flow downstream towards larger bodies of water, such as lakes or oceans, and play a key role in shaping the landscape and supporting ecosystems.

Gyresare huge areas found in the middle of the ocean. These are formed when ocean water stays in one place and does not circulate. The force of the Earth's wind patterns create ocean surface currents.

Some people did; they recognized the signs of an incipient tsunami.

A tsunami is caused by an undersea earthquake that causes a landslide deep in the ocean. The water displaced by the landslide is propelled an hundreds of miles per hour across the oceans until it reaches the shore.

The first sign of a tsunami is that the water RECEDES; the ocean pulls way out from the shore, and only a couple of minutes later does the water flow back in in force. In Malaysia, a British family was on the beach and the 12-year-old daughter saw the sea pull away from the shore. She had read about tsunamis in school the year before, and recognized what was happening. She alerted her family and the people around them on the beach, and they all fled to higher ground and survived. In the Andaman Islands, an entire village fled to the mountains because their ancient traditions demanded that if the sea were ever to recede, the villagers should immediately gather at their mountain temple.

Many others followed the water away from the shore, and were swept out to sea.

The problem is that so far, scientists have not developed an accurate way to predict earthquakes. So earthquakes always are a surprise when they happen, even when (as here in California) everybody expects an earthquake "someday soon". Nations around the Pacific have developed a tsunami warning system designed to detect the surge of water that is the tsunami while it is still far out to sea, and to radio alerting messages to land. However, the warning buoys are expensive to deploy and require considerable maintenance, so they have not (so far) been especially effective.

The roughest seas are typically found in the Southern Ocean, around the Southern Hemisphere, due to strong winds and currents. The North Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the area known as the "Roaring Forties," is also known for rough seas due to frequent storms and high waves.

The Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, has a significant impact on the climate of Atlanta, Georgia by helping to keep winter temperatures milder than they would be otherwise. The Labrador Current, a cold ocean current, does not directly impact Atlanta's climate due to its distance from the region.

Before sonar, there were applications where individuals actually "listened to the water" with different devices. It was largely impractical for any kind of "real science" or "real military" applications, and probably was viewed as a novelty. But the first submarines were equipped with a crude (by modern standards) sonar, so the technology developed with the military need for it.

Deep currents are the result of differences in water density caused by variations in temperature and salinity. These differences create a gradient in density which drives the movement of water at depth in the ocean. The movement of deep currents plays a crucial role in transporting heat, nutrients, and oxygen around the world's oceans.

The ocean floor is not fertile in the traditional sense of supporting plant growth like soil on land. However, the ocean floor can support diverse ecosystems including hydrothermal vent communities and deep-sea coral gardens that are able to thrive in these unique environments.

Tidal ranges are greatest in coastal areas with narrow bays and estuaries that amplify the tidal forces. The Bay of Fundy in Canada holds the record for the highest tidal range, reaching up to 16 meters (53 feet) due to its unique shape and topography.

This is called meandering, which refers to the winding or curving path taken by wind or ocean currents as they flow. This meandering is influenced by various factors such as the Coriolis effect, friction with the Earth's surface, and changing temperatures.

You will find the greatest density in higher latitudes due to the temperature of the water. Now, as for which specific latitude (and at what point does the temperature become a non factor) is a bit above my area of expertise.