Immune System

Proteins that are involved in our body immune system are called antibodies or immunoglobulins (IgG) produced by B cells. There are different kind of Immunonoglobulins IgA, IgM, IgG (antibodies). In addition, cytotoxins, histamines, interferons, tumour necrosis factors are also produced by white blood cells to defend us from pathogens.

A "three-phase system" is a polyphase system having three phases. The term "polyphase system" just means a system having multiple phases. If it is used by itself, "a polyphase system" doesn't mean "a three-phase system".

A prion, or misfolded protein caused by genetic mutation.

Because it is the first thing a pathogen (a bacteria, virus, fungus, or parasite that causes disease) must overcome before it can gain access to your body.  The physical defenses include your skin and mucus.

There a number of diseases with joint pain and swelling as the symptoms. Different types of arthritis are known to cause inflammation to joins as well as pain. Another common disease that has similar symptoms is gout.

Complement proteins signaling phagocytes

The immune system is the body's defense system that helps fight off bacteria and viruses. It is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens.

There are three main types of fungi: yeast, mold, and mushrooms. Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce by budding, while molds are multicellular fungi that grow as hyphae and form visible colonies. Mushrooms are the reproductive structures of certain fungi that produce spores for reproduction.

Yes, neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that are phagocytes. Phagocytes are cells that engulf and digest pathogens, debris, or other unwanted materials in the body, helping to fight infection and maintain healthy tissues.

all wbc produce antibodies to attach the the pathogens antigens.

the genes are passed from both mother and father to the fetus, this is the cause of some genetic disorders, nothing can be done about this because all genes are hereditary, good along with the bad.

Naive T cells are activated by antigen presenting cells (dendritic cells). This begins when an antigen (eg. bacterial protein) is taken up/detected by a dendritic cell. In order for the T cell to become activated, it requires 3 different signals:

1. MHC (Major Histocompatibilty Complex) presenting foreign antigen to a T cell receptor -> creates specificity so that the T cell relates to this antigen

2. B7 (on dendritic cell) binds to CD28 (on T cell) - this is known as the co-stimulatory signal. This is basically how the T cell knows that it is interacting with a "professional" antigen presenting cell. Without this signal, the T cell will not be activated by the MHC/antigen signal.

3. Cytokines - these are signalling molecules released by the dendritic cells and stimulate T cell differentiation (tells the T cells what functions to undergo).

Fungi tends to prefer temperatures that are below human body temperature, and to be in darker and moister areas than many tissues in the human body. Without a compromised immune system or other debilitation of the human, fungi generally are not able to survive in humans or cause an infection.

Melanocytes are found in the epidermis, mixed amongst the rest of your skin cells, known as keratinocytes. When a melanocyte gets exposed to UV rays (ie the sun) it secretes melanin, and puts it into little packages (vesicles) called melanosomes. It delivers the melanosomes to the surrounding keratinocytes, which break them open with lysosomes to release the melanin into their cytoplasm. The melanin then goes to surround the nucleus of the cells, and protect its DNA from any more UV light.

If you look at cells with lots of melanin vs. cells with little melanin under a microscope, you will notice that the cells with lots of melanin have very dark nuclei.

Pathogens and non-pathogens are alike in that they can both exist in various environments and interact with organisms. However, pathogens have the ability to cause disease in their hosts, while non-pathogens do not typically cause harm.

There are many types of bacteria that appear biologically in a septic system. Those that exist in the septic tank help to manage waste and organic substance. Septic bacteria naturally give off gases that break down the organic substance in the waste water causing bad odor. Some septic bacteria are intended to restore and preserve all miscarried septic systems.

There is a bedside version of the test in which the doctor collects four or five drops of blood in a small tube, cools the tube in ice water for 30-60 seconds, and looks for clumping of red blood cells.

It depends what sort of pathogen it is and what cells are infected but in general the infected cell is destroyed by lymphocytes and then engulfed by a phagocyte to get rid of what is left.

Activated by lymphocytes, Polymorph phagocytes absorb or envelope mostly bacteria, compartmentalize it, barrage it with enzymes attempting to destroy it, or radically alter it. Macrophages injest and destroy a wider variety of invaders, including viruses, and act as anitgen presenting cells which serve to increase immune response. Some epithelial and reticular cells also act as phagocytes in that the can injest and destroy or remove invaders.

Interesting question! "Yes" is the simple answer. It depends on where the bug is living. For example. E. coli is present in huge numbers in the gut and has no ill effects (except some strains such as o156) and is considered normal flora FOR THE GUT but if these bugs were to get into, saya wound and multiply, they would be considered pathogenic. Worse still if they got into the blood circulation in large numbers such as during an operation they could, if not treated with antibiotics, lead to a very serious case of sepsis

The immune system is what mounts an immune response. It complex and consists of various barriers: chemical barriers, inflammation, general cellular barriers, and the specific barriers like antibodies.