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Decade - 1970s
The 1970s was the decade that started on January 1, 1970, and ended on December 31, 1979. The most notable events in the 1970s include the Ugandan-Tanzanian War (1978-1979), and the Munich massacre (1972).
1,516 Questions
The main event in 1975 were the convictions and sentencing of those involved in the 1973 Watergate Scandal Cover-up took place.
The information below is detailed where I deem it necessary.
January 1, 1975
1. Four of the Watergate 7 were convicted of covering up the Watergate break-in in 1972. These four were on the Committee to Reelect President Richard Nixon. Former Attorney General John Mitchell (1913-1988) was sentenced to 2 to 8 years in prison for his role. Her served only 19 months. Former White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman was originally sentenced sentenced 2 to 8 years in prison had his sentence reduced on appeal to 1 to 4 years. He served 18 months. The Assistant to the President for Domestic Affairs John Ehrlichman was also sentenced 2 to 8 years but also served 18 months. The Assistant Attorney General to John Mitchell, Robert Maridian, was sentenced 4 to 8 years which would later be overturn due to a technicality.
2. International Women's Year begins
January 4 - President Gerald Ford signs executive order #11828 to set up a Committee on CIA activities within the United States for any illegal or improper activities. Congress sets up two committees later on to do the same.
January 5 - The Soviet Union's Salyut 4 (space station) with crew of 2 is launched for 30 days.
January 8 - Judge Sirica orders release of Watergate's John W Dean III, Herbert W. Kalmbach & Jeb Stuart Magruder from prison. John Dean (1938- ), who was the chief witness to the Watergate break-in was originally President Richard Nixon's White House Counsel. He was sentenced 1 to 4 years prior to his release. Herbert W. Kalmbach (1921 - ) was involved in the Watergate cover up but it was his raising 3.9 million dollars for a secret Republican Congressional campaign and promising an Ambassador to a better post for $100,000 which landed him in jail for 191 days plus he had to pay a $100,000 fine. He also lost his license to practice law but regained it in 1977. Jeb Stuart Magruder
(1934- ) was the Special Assistant to the President. He resigned in order to join the "Committee to reelect the President (Nixon)." He was Deputy Assistant to Attorney John Mitchell on that committee. He was sentenced for his part of the Watergate coverup on May 21, 1974 originally sentenced 10 months to 4 years.
January 11 - Soviet Union's Soyuz 17 carries 2 cosmonauts to space station Salyut 4
January 14 - United Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) breaks trade agreement with US. The Soviet Union informs the US that because of the Jackson-Vanik amendment it will not ratify the trade agreement signed in 1972, which would have unconditionally abolished discriminative trade restrictions. The USSR resents the Jackson-Vanik amendment and the restriction of Export-Import Bank loans, which it deems contrary to the 1972 trade agreement and the principle of non-interference in domestic affairs. The Jackson-Vanik amendment that is named after Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson (1912-1983) of Washington state and Representative Charles Varnik (1913-2007) denies most favorable nation status to certain nations with non-market economies that restrict emigration, which is considered a human right. The USSR claimed interference in their own domestic policy and did not ratify the treaty. The act, which still exists, was aimed to free Soviet Jewry.
January 24 -
1)FALN bomb the Fraunces Tavern, killing four and injuring more than 50. The FALN stands for Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional. They are terrorists fighting for Puerto Rican Independence from the United States.
2)An object in a vacuum centrifuge becomes the fastest Earth bound object with a speed of 7200 kph in England.
February 1 - Otis Francis Tabler is 1st open homosexual to get security clearance to work for the Defense Department.
February 4 - Haicheng earthquake, that hit 7.3 on the Richter scale, occurred in Haicheng, Liaoning, China. Haicheng has a popluation of 1,000,000 were warned about the earthquake by Seismologists leading to the only predicted earthquake in history.
February 11 - In England Margaret Thatcher (1925 - ) defeats Edward Heath ( 1916-2005) for Conservative leadership. She would eventually be elected and reelected as Prime Minister as her reign last from 1979-1990.
February 21 - Three of the four Watergate coverup conspirators convicted on January 1 are sentenced to prison. They are John Mitchell, HR Haldeman & John D Ehrlichman as they are sentenced to 2½-8 yrs.
February 21 - In response to the energy crisis, daylight saving time commences nearly two months early in the United States.
March 7 - The United States Senate revises filibuster rule, allows 60 senators to limit debate. Prior to 1919, a Senator could filibuster for an eternity. The rule changed that year to 2/3 of the Senate could vote for cloture of the filibuster. Then in 1957, the Senate changed the rule again to 2/3 present could end the filibuster when Senator Strom Thurman from South Carolina set a record filibustering for 24 hours and 18 minutes against the Civil Rights Act.
March 9 - Construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System begins to bring oil from Alaska to the continental 48 states.
March 16 - US satellite Mariner 10 makes 3rd & final fly-by of planet Mercury.
March 21 - Ethiopia ends monarchy after 3000 years.
March 25 - Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, King of Saudi-Arab (1906-75), is shot and killed by his nephew. He ruled from 1964-1975.
April 2 - As the Vietnam War comes to an end, thousands of civilian refugees flee from the Quang Ngai Province in front of advancing North Vietnamese troops.
April 4 - Microsoft is founded as a partnership between Bill Gates and Paul Allen.
April 8 - Frank Robinson debuts as 1st African-American baseball manager for the American League Cleveland Indians as they defeat the New York Yankees 5-3.
April 16 - Cambodian Red Khmer Rouge (Communists) occupy Phnom Penh.
April 17 -
1) Khmer Rouge captures Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Kampuchea Natl Day).
2) Phnom Penh fell to Communist insurgents, ending Cambodia's 5-year war.
April 19 - With the help of USSR, India launches it's first satellite.
April 21 - Last South Vietnam president Nguyen Van Thieu resigns after 10 years.
April 25 - West German embassy blown-up in Stockholm Sweden. Terrorists known as the Baader-Meinholt gang, a faction of the Red Army Faction (RAF), took over the West German Embassy in Stockholm, Sweden demanding release of fellow RAF members jailed in West German prisons. The six members took 13 attaches as hostages. The group of six referred to themselves as Kommando Holger Meins after Holger Meins who died on November 11, 1974 as a result of a hunger strike. They warned Swedish police to back off. When the police did not, they took one attache and shot and killed him outside the embassy. They wanted to speak to the Chancellor of West Germany Helmut Schmidt. Once he refused to speak to the group, another hostage was shot 3 times in front of a window. The insurgents stated that they will kill a hostage an hour if their demands were not met. The Swedish police was ready to storm the embassy when an explosion went off. That explosion was the TNT the group had that went off accidentally. Another insurgent detonated a grenade killing himself. The surviving hostages and the insurgents suffered severe burns. One of the insurgents would later die of the wounds. The leaders of the group, Andrea Baader and Ulrike Meinhof would be arrested.
April 28 - South-Vietnam Gen Duong Van Minh sworn in as president until April 30th.
April 29 - Vietnam War: Operation Frequent Wind: The U.S. begins to evacuate US citizens from Saigon prior to an expected North Vietnamese takeover. U.S. involvement in the war comes to an end. They would leave thousands of South Vietnamese citizens stranded.
April 30 - Last US helicopter leaves US embassy grounds, Saigon surrenders
May 7 - US Small Astronomy Satellite Explorer 53 launched to study X-rays in space.
May 12 - US merchant ship Mayaguez seized by Cambodian forces using gunboats. The Khmer Rouge government imprisoned all 40 men on that ship.
May 14 - The US sent Marines via helicopters to assault the island of Koh Tang Island to free the hostages. What they found was an empty ship for prior to the operation, the men were sent free and were not on the island. The Marines on the island encountered strong resistance on the island and could not be extracted until the 15th. U.S. casualties were fifteen killed in action, three missing, fifty wounded, and twenty‐three killed in a helicopter crash.
May 19 - Japanese Junko Tabei (1939 - ) is the 1st woman to climb to the top of Mount Everest.
May 21 - In West Germany, the trial against Baader-Meinhof group begins in Stuttgart.
May 30 - The European Space Agency (ESA) forms.
June 2 -
1) James A Healy, 1st black Roman Catholic bishop, consecrated (Maine).
2)Vice President Nelson Rockefeller finds no pattern of wrong doing by the CIA.
June 5 - Egyptain President Anwar Sadat re-opens the Suez Canal that has been closed since the war with Israel in 1967.
June 6 - Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam established.
June 8 - USSR launches Venera 9 for Venus landing.
June 10 - Vice President Nelson Rockefeller panel reports on 300,000 illegal CIA files on Americans.
June 16 - The US Supreme Court rules uniform minimum legal fees are unconstitutional.
June 17 - Voters in Northern Mariana Is approve commonwealth status with US.
June 26 -
1) Indian PM Indira Gandhi declares a state of emergency.
2)Two FBI agents and a member of the American Indian Movement are killed in a shootout on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Leonard Peltier is later convicted of the murders in a controversial trial.
July 15 - USSR's Soyuz 19 & US Apollo 18 launched. They will rendezvous 2 days later.
July 17 - Apollo 18 & Soyuz 19 make 1st US/USSR linkup in space.
July 19 - Apollo & Soyuz linked in orbit for 2 days, separate.
July 20 - India expels three reporters from The Times, The Daily Telegraph, and Newsweek because they refused to sign a pledge to abide by government censorship.
July 22 - US House of Representatives votes to restore citizenship to Gen Robert E Lee.
August 1 - 38 government leaders signs Helsinki accord. Nations of Europe, the except for Albani and Anddora, plus the United States and Canada signed the accord in Helsinki, Finland in order to better relationship with the Communist bloc (countries controlled by the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union itself).
August 21 - US lightens trade embargo against Cuba that was in place since 1962.
August 23 - Communists take over Laos as The Pathet Lao, renamed the Lao People's Front, seizes power. King Savang Vatthana abdicates and he is later arrested and dies in captivity. The Lao People's Democratic Republic is proclaimed, with the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) the only legal political party. Kaysone Phomvihane becomes prime minister. "Socialist transformation" of the economy is launched.
September 5 - There was an assassination attempt on President Gerald Ford by a Charles Manson follower Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme.
September 6 - Czech tennis star Martina Navratilova asks for US political asylum in New York City during the US Open.
September 8 -
1)Boston begins court ordered (US Supreme Court) busing of public schools to integrate their schools.
2)Guinee-Bissau declares independence from Portugal.
September 16 - Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia (National Day).
September 28 - A bill passes authorizing the admission of women to military academies.
October 1 - Ellice Islands split from Gilbert Islands, take name "Tuvalu."
October 9 - Soviet dissident author Andrei Sakharov wins Nobel Peace Prize. He is under house arrest.
October 10 -Israel formally signs Sinai peace accord with Egypt. The agreement would be supercede by the 1979 peace accord where both countries would end total hostilities between each other that has occurred since the founding of Israel in 1947.
October 20 - The US Supreme Court rules teachers could spank their pupils after warning.
October 21 - The US Coast Guard Academy 1st allows women to enroll.
October 26 - Anwar Sadat became 1st Egyptian President to officially visit US.
November 10 - Outlawed PLO leader Yasser Arafat addresses UN in NYC.
November 25 - Netherlands grants Suriname independence (Natl Day).
November 27 - The Provisional IRA assassinates Ross McWhirter, after a press conference in which McWhirter announced a reward for the capture of those responsible for multiple bombings and shootings across England. Ross McWhirter and his twin brother Norris founded the "Guiness Book of Records."
November 28 - Democratic Republic East-Timor proclaimed.
November 29 -
1) Kilauea Volcano erupts in Hawaii
2) President Ford requires states to provide free education for handicapped.
December 2 - Laos King Sisavang Vatthana resigns, republic forms as Lao People's Democratic Republic founded (National Day).
December 3 - Laos falls to communist forces. Lao People's Democratic Republic proclaimed.
December 6 - Balcombe Street Siege: An IRA Active Service Unit takes a couple hostage in Balcombe Street, London.
December 7 - Indonesian army occupies East Timor.
December 9 - US President Gerald Ford signs $2.3 B loan-authorization for NYC to avoid NYC declaring bankruptcy.
December 10 - Andrei Sakharov's wife Yelena Bonner, accepts his Nobel Peace Prize.
December 17 - Lynette Fromme sentenced to life for attempt on President Ford's life.
December 23 -US Congress passes Metric Conversion Act.
December 29 - 11 killed, 75 hurt by terrorist bomb at LaGuardia Airport in NYC. This took place at the TWA shuttle service between NYC-Washington D.C. and NYC-Boston. The case remains to this day unresolved.
December 30 - Constitution of Democratic Republic of Madagascar comes into force.
What happened to the world gift company popular in the 1970's?
Not an answer but the same question that I would like to know... I have many pieces that my mother in law sold in the 50s... they have the engraving on the bottom, World Gift...
I am a former World Gift Distributor/Manager. I left the company in the late seventies and it was still very active at that time. It is my hope that someone will be able to answer the question; it was a great concept for it's time and introduced many imported items to the country. The exceptional thing about selling was that we knew how the items were made, something about the people who handcrafted them (most), how to use them in your home and stories behind the items. How many times can you learn this much about something you buy now? The company was headquartered In Dallas, Texas at 425 Regal Row. The founder was Dick Kelly. Perhaps this information may help someone else in their search.
I WOULD LIKE TO ADD: I also was a 'rep' and sold these items. I, myself, collected a lot of 'chandi'?? It was Indian brass plated in nickel and then carved. It never needed polishing. I have a huge beautiful collection and the funny thing is I can find no reference whatsoever to Chandi, pronounced 'shandee' anywhere on eBay or the net. Does anyone at all know anything about these items? Thank you
1969 Apollo five dollar silver coin worth?
The 1969 Apollo 11 five dollar silver coin is a commemorative coin minted by the United States to celebrate the moon landing. The value of the coin can vary depending on its condition and market demand, but it typically sells for around $15 to $30 USD in the current market.
How much were cars back in the 1970's?
In the 1970's, a new car cost around $5,000 or more for a passenger car. Two door models were actually higher priced than some 4 door models because of the horsepower under the hood. A new pickup sold for around $7,000 or higher.
What was used in 1977 to write a school essay?
Pencil and paper if that's what you mean.
Old fashioned research in person in the library, followed up with typing the paper out on a typewriter.
What length of shell can be fired from a 20 gauge Model 300 made in the mid 1970s?
the chamber length should be stamped on the barrell just ahead of the reciever, something like "12 gauge for 2 3/4 " or shorter shells or 12 gauge for 3" magnum shells. pbl I own one it's 3''
What are inventions in the 60's?
Halogen Lamp 1960
Valium 1961
Nondairy creamer 1961
Audio cassette 1962
Fiber-tip pen 1962
Spacewar (first computer video game) 1962
Silicone breast implants 1962
Videodisc 1963
Acrylic paint 1964
Permanent-press fabric 1964
BASIC (an early computer language) 1964
Astroturf 1965
Soft contact lenses 1965
Nutra Sweet 1965
code Compact disc 1965
Kevlar 1965
Electronic Fuel injection for cars 1966
Handheld calculator 1967
Computer mouse 1968
RAM (random access memory) 1968
Arpanet (first internet) 1969
Artificial heart 1969
ATM 1969
Bar-code scanner 1969
How did the energy crisis start?
The energy crisis maybe partially a result of environmentalists' refusal to allow the construction of new refineries, drilling for oil in some of the largest reserves in the world, or building nuclear power plants.
The energy crisis is possibly several things intertwined and for ease of conversation they are put in a nutshell called [the energy crisis]
It did not exist until a need for energy other then food stuff became into being. It may have been furthered along on its path to current prominence by the change in the western world from a agrarian society to a consumer based society .
It could have also been started when the consumption of fuel exceeded the supply.
This could have been a direct result of supply and demand or due to manipulation of markets by suppliers originally but currently manipulation of supply by cartel is happening.
Possible when civilization went into the industrial revolution and energy needs expanded it started then first with the need for whale oil then coal now oil.
What is the value of a 30-30 Winchester Model 94 made in the 1970s?
I recently asked a similar question to a man working at Cabela's. He said that depending on the condition a Winchester 94 made in the 1960's was worth about $600.00. I figured he new what he was talking about because he worked in the area that housed the shotguns worth 13,000.00. papawfowler It is worth about $200.00 A PRE 1964 30 30 WINCHESTER IS worth about $450.00
What are the popular names that define each decade from 1930s through 2000?
Generations occur about every 10 years in today's society. Prior to the 1900s they would occur from 20 to 100 years as society did not evolve much during those time periods. The contributing factors for a generational shift include the following:
1. Global influence by world leaders/events
2. Popular music/movies/books
3. Shared Hardships
4. Defining characteristics in clothing, hair styles and other styles
5. Shared vision
Generations cannot be defined by decades per say, however they can be defined in 10 year blocks as illustrated below:
Children born in the 1900's through early 1910s and grew up in the 10's and 20's are commonly referred to as the Flapper Generation coined for the popular dance of the time. Not all people danced or agreed with the dress and actions of a few, yet that few clearly and uniquely identified that time period.
Children born in the late 10's and early 20's and grew up in the 20's and 30's were often referred to as the Displaced Laborers. With the increase in immigration, cheaper labor and a declining economy, many young adults flocked to cities to find work and many found themselves homeless after the depression living in tent cities called Hoovervilles.
Children born in the late 20's and early 30' and grew up in the 30's and 40's are known as Depression Era Generation. This generation became extremely frugal and cautious after watching parents and older family members struggling to free them.
Children born in the late 30's and early 40's and grew up in the 40's and 50's are a lost generation. Some have referred to this group as War Birds and War Brides, others have referred to the generation as the Age of War as WWII influenced the lives and attitudes of the generation.
Children born in the late 40's through 50's and grew up in the 50's and 60's are known as the Baby Boomers. This generation came about supposedly due to the return of soldiers from war. The population boom in the United States spiked higher than any other point in US history.
Children born in the late 50's and early 60's and grew up in the 60's and 70's are often referred to as the Peace Generationor the Hippie Generation. This generation is known for their flagrancy and disregard for authority in protest against social norms and government decisions.
Children born in the late 60's and early 70's and grew up in the 70's and 80's are another lost generation. However, during the 80's the term Me Generation was created to define the narcissistic nature of the clothing and style obsessed teens and young adults of the time period.
Children born in the late 70's and early 80's and grew up in the 80's and 90's are referred to as the X-Generation. This group became so radically different in their views by blending from all previous generations and adding it's own flavor of angst and anger while benefiting from a strengthening economy.
Children born in the late 80's and early 90's and grew up in the 90's and 00's have recently been described by Scott Sequoia as the E-Generation for the growing dependency on technology including cell phones and the internet.
This information was sourced from the book, 'From the Me Generation to the E-Generation, a guide for understanding today's tech savvy youth' by Scott Sequoia. Scott.sequoia@daddysurvivialguide.com
You can tell the year of manufacture by looking at the serial number it should have a "T" in it followed by a one digit or two digit number. Example: T2 = 1962 first year production T3 = 1963 T4 = 1964 etc T70 = 1970 T71 = 1971 etc Is your pistol a standard (no engraving), Goldline Medalist (gold enlay) or a Renaissance Medalist (fully engraved receiver)? Give me a call at 417-830-5588 and I will elaborate more. Browning Collector ******************************************************************************** The original Browning Medalist .22LR Target Pistol was produced from 1962 or l964 to 1974, This pistol is not to be confused with a later Medalist which was a completely different, and far less accurate, pistol. Value will depend upon the mechanical condition, quality of bore, the quality of finish on metal parts and grips, and the presence and quality of the kit which accompanied the original gun; tools, case and all related printed materials. I have seen Medalists in NRA Excellent to Mint condition with complete case and accessory kits selling in the range of $1100 1400 (US). This was, and is, a superb pistol.
What is the value of a Browning 22 made in Belgium the 1970s?
Are you talking about a .22 auto take down rifle or pistol? Feel free to contact me and I will try to answer your questions, 417-830-5588 jrreeves@prodigy.net Browning sold several types of .22 during the 1970's. Some were pistols, some were rifles. Need more information before we can even hazard a guess.
Where can you find a toy car model kit of a 1970's Cadillac?
Hobby shops have a much better selection of models that department stores do and might be willing to special order it for you if it is not in stock.
What is a 1987 W silver eagle MS 70 PCI certified coin worth?
The value of a MS-70 certified coin will vary widely, depending on which company did the certification. PCGS and NGC are considered the top tier grading services -- much more highly regarded as the services to have your coins graded by. They are more strict and consistant in their grading practices, have a much higher collector demand for them, and therefore are worth significantly more money. The second tier of grading services -- ANACS and ICG -- are not quite as highly regarded and are worth significantly less money than the top tier services. But they are still significantly better than the third tier services. The other grading services, like PCI, SEGS, NTC, SGS (and several others) are much less highly regarded and are considered the third tier (AKA Third World) grading services. They are more lenient, and give out alot more of the MS-70 grades, sometimes to coins that do not deserve them. Therefore, their value is almost always much less than coins from the upper tier services. For example, recent eBay sales show NGC certified MS-70 1986 Silver Eagles regularly selling for over $400 (and one for almost $800). At the same time, ICG certified MS-70 coins sold in the $100-$200 range. And third tier service coins sold mostly in the $35-$45 range (with one at $21 and one at $66). And in examining several other years, again the trend remained the same. While there were no 1987 coins in the top & second tier holders sold on eBay to do a direct comparison, the trend would remain the same. Third tier 1987 coins sold in the $15-$46 range. So to answer your question, your 1987 Silver Eagle graded by PCI as MS-70 for $40 is within the normal price range -- just a little on the high side for this year.
What important events occurred in 1972?
The Revolutionary War was a big part of our 1700's history. The Revolutionary War helped make the United States a country. George Washington led the Patriot troops, and later became our country's first president of the United States.
Not enough information to answer this question. Based on model, and condition you can get a general idea of value from the Blue Book link below. A professional appraisal is always recommended.
What was the cost of a house in 1970 UK?
Depends on the size of the house. However - I can quote you an accurate example... When I was young, my mother rented our home (a 2-bedroomed terrace house) from a private landlord. In 1975, he gave my mother the option to buy the property. The property was valued for mortgage purposes at £6,000
What happened in New York City in 1977?
From July 13 to July 14, there was a 25-hour blackout that affected most of New York City and which resulted in widespread looting, rioting and arson.
The next blackout -- which affected not just New York City, but several Northeastern and Midwestern U.S. states and Ontario, Canada -- occurred on August 14, 2003. Power was not fully restored to New York City until August 16.
Unlike the 1977 blackout, however, very little looting took place. The only reported incidents of looting were in Brooklyn. This is a testament to the drastically reduced crime rates and heightened morale of the city. From the 1970s through the early 1990s, New York City was in the midst of a serious crime problem, and the city was also facing bankruptcy. New York City is now the safest major U.S. city, and has been for several years.
Who led the over throw of the shah of Iran in 1979?
Iran is mostly Shiites who are deviated from the mainstream straight path of Islam; they visit the graves to perform some practice that invalidates the genuine creed of Islam such as asking the dead people to benefit them, help them or protect them etc. With regard to your question, it was the Khomeini who made the new regime on Iran in 1979. Thx.
What was life like in Liverpool in the 1970s?
very bad because their were many gangs which would almost compete with each other by stabbing each other etc also because of the loss of jobs many people tried to make money the quickest way weather it was by mugging someone of from killing someone.
Should English continue as Pakistan's Official Language?
The Language Movement of Pakistan!
Preservation of Pakistan's native languages against the domination of English and Urdu
Language is the most important aspect of culture. It is the dominant feature in determining nationality or ethnicity. It is the binding force that unites a people, and makes them distinct from others. Language represents a people's heritage and identity. However, the imposition of Urdu as the national language of Pakistan has been disastrous to the country.
Urdu language evolved during the declining period of Muslim rule in South Asia. But Persian (Farsi) always remained the official language of South-central Asia (i.e. Pakistan region) during the Muslim rule. Turkic and Arabic languages were also popular, Turkic language being the mother-tongue of many among the ruling elite, and Arabic language learnt for religious or scholarly purposes. The base of most Southern Asian Muslim empires was in North India, particularly in Delhi and surrounding areas. With the passage of time, due to the constant interaction between the ruled Khari-boli-speaking north Indian Hindu masses and the ruling Persian-Turkic-speaking Muslim elite, a new language slowly evolved called Hindustani, whose Persianized form came to be known as Urdu. Although, Hindustani/Urdu language eventually became popular, it was limited to parts of north India (Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, etc.) and never became the official language during Muslim rule. Other regions continued their native languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Kashmiri, Seraiki, Baluchi, etc. having nothing to do with Urdu, while Persian was the official language throughout the Muslim Empire.
Even in the case of north India, the official language continued as Persian down to the days of the last Mughal emperor. "Persian remained the official language of every Muslim state in India and the ambition to emulate Persian classics was nowhere given up, the influx of Persian poets being a compulsion for the study of Persian" (Indian Muslims, by M. Mujeeb). It was only later on, from the advent of the British that north Indian Muslims adopted Urdu and developed an attachment for it. "During the first centuries of its existence, Urdu literature was entirely poetical. Prose Urdu owes its origin to the British occupation of India and to the need of text books for the College of Fort William. The Hindi form of Hindustani was invented at the same time by the teachers at the College. It was intended for the use of Hindus and was derived from Urdu by ejecting all words of Arabic and Persian birth, and substituting in their place words borrowed or derived from the indigenous Sanskrit" (A Study of History, Vol. V, by AJ Toynbee). Also, the Perso-Arabic script of Urdu and Devangari script of Hindi are other significant differences between the two.
Despite these differences, Urdu and Hindi languages are extremely similar to each other, mostly composed of native north Indian linguistic elements. Having a common origin, both languages are intelligible to each other, and overwhelmingly share the same syntax, vowels, vocabulary, etc. It would be safe to say that both Hindi and Urdu are almost the same language, the minor differences being somewhat comparable to the Persianized Azeri language of Iran with the Russianized Azeri language of Azerbaijan. Leaving aside the undoubtedly close relationship between Hindi and Urdu, the fact remains that Urdu is only native to parts of north India, and is a foreign language in Pakistan.
Since north India (Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, etc.) was the base of Muslim and British empires, the Urdu-speaking north Indian Muslims had an environmental advantage in better education, jobs, and businesses. The result being that the Urdu-speaking north Indian Muslims dominated in South Asia as the educated elitist Muslim class. Due to their domination, it led to Urduization of some other non-Urdu-speaking Muslims who sought better education and status. Also, to some extent, propaganda of Urdu as being the only true "Muslim" and "superior" language of South Asia was promoted. With the birth of Pakistan Movement, the bulk of it having a majority of Urdu-speaking north Indians, Urdu language was further promoted. Upon Pakistan's creation, the peak of Urduization process became a reality with the imposition of Urdu on the non-Urdu speaking peoples of Pakistan, in the form of Urdu as the national language of Pakistan.
Except for the 7% of Pakistanis who are north Indian Muslim migrants or their descendents, also known as Muhajirs, whose mother-tongue is Urdu, none of the other Pakistanis have anything to do with Urdu. In fact, imposition of Urdu is resented among many peoples of Pakistan. The loss of East Pakistan was also mostly due to imposition of Urdu on Bengalis of the former East Pakistan region. There were language riots in Sindh during the 70s. And basically Urdu is resisted in much of the country. If many people have learnt Urdu, it is simply because they are forced to do so, for social and economic communicational necessities under the Urdu-dominated system of the country. Instead of Urdu, why was not Arabic or Persian made the national language of Pakistan? At least, Arabic is the language of Islam (of Quran), thus naturally it would had been more accepted among Pakistanis. Also, Persian was another logical option, because of its historical role of being the official language in the region (Muslim and other periods), and would have made us closer to the Muslim brothers on our western borders.
National language is suppose to unite a country, but in Pakistan, Urdu as the national language has caused division and resentment among most Pakistanis. But the worse part is that Urdu being a north Indian language and foreign to Pakistan is slowly destroying the local languages/cultures, and "Indianizing" the native Pakistanis. This is cultural and linguistic genocide of Pakistanis. It is Indian imperialism, wearing the mask of falsehoods about Urdu language. Many of the native languages of Pakistan are already in danger of being extinct, mostly due to Urdu imposition. And when a language dies, so does its people's identity and heritage. Pakistan was created mostly based on our cultural distinctiveness; unfortunately, Urdu-imposition is only forcefully making us artificially closer to India. And with this linguistic imperialism, also comes other aspects of cultural invasion. For example, north Indian music/TV/film dominates in Pakistan, whereas native Pakistani music/film/TV is largely ignored by the Urdu dominated media. Indian culture is widely spreading in Pakistan and it is visible with more women wearing the Indian dress sari, people adopting many Indian words/phrases in their native Pakistani languages, many Indian customs and ceremonies followed by Pakistanis, Pakistanis being brainwashed with biased Indian socio-political views, and much more.
We Pakistanis are grateful to Quaid-e-Azam for his efforts in the creation of Pakistan; however, as a human being he was not perfect. Jinnah's choice of Urdu as the national language of Pakistan was his biggest mistake with long-term negative consequences. Criticizing Urdu as the national language of Pakistan might be very painful to many Pakistanis. But ignoring this issue with falsehoods and illusions will only worsen the problem. Let us be open-minded and cease Urdu as the national language of Pakistan. At the same time, Urdu language should be respected, and people given the freedom to learn or speak it. Promoting native languages to become the official languages of their respective provinces or districts is the best solution to the problem. All native languages of Pakistan should be declared as the national languages of Pakistan. This will ensure the preservation of our language/culture, unity and respect between the various ethnicities, and pride and distinctiveness in our Pakistani nationhood. If a multi-lingual country like Switzerland can have a successful multi-linguistic system, then so can the Pakistanis. Let us make change for our betterment before it's too late!
What is a historical event in Brazil?
The history of Brazil starts with Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, who arrived thousands of years ago by crossing the Bering land bridgeinto Alaska and then moving south.
The first European to explore Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22, 1500 under the sponsorship of Portugal. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Brazil was a colony of Portugal. On September 7, 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and became a constitutional monarchy, the Empire of Brazil. A military coup in 1889 established a republican government. The country has seen a dictatorship (1930-1934 and 1937-1945) and a period of military rule (1964-1985).There are several theories regarding who first set foot on the land now called Brazil (the origin of whose name is disputed). Besides the widely accepted view of Cabral's discovery, some defend that it was Duarte Pacheco Pereira between November and December of 1498 [2][3] and some others say that it was first discovered by Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, a Spanish navigator that had accompanied Colombus in his first trip to the American continent having supposedly arrived to today's Pernambuco region on 26 January 1500.[citation needed] In April 1500, however, Brazil was claimed by Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.[4] The Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi-Guarani language family, and fought among themselves.[5]
Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil, mainly due to the high profits gained through commerce with India, China, and Indonesia. This lack of interest led to several "invasions" by different countries, and the Portuguese Crown devised a system to effectively occupy Brazil, without paying the costs. Through the Hereditary Captaincies system, Brazil was divided into strips of land that were donated to Portuguese noblemen, who were in turn responsible for the occupation of the land and answered to the king.
Later, the Portuguese realized the system was a failure, only two lots were successfully occupied (Pernambuco and São Vicente, in the current state of São Paulo), and took control of the country after its European discovery, the land's major export-giving its name to Brazil (another contested hypothesis)-was brazilwood, a large tree (Caesalpinia echinata) whose trunk contains a prized red dye, and which was nearly wiped out as a result of overexploitation.
Starting in the 17th century, sugarcane culture, grown in plantation's property called engenhos ("factories") along the northeast coast (Brazil's Nordeste) became the base of Brazilian economy and society, with the use of black slaves on large plantations to make sugar production for export to Europe. At first, settlers tried to enslave the Natives as labor to work the fields. (The initial exploration of Brazil's interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves.) However the Natives were found to be unsuitable as slaves, and so the Portuguese land owners turned to Africa, from which they imported millions of slaves.
During the first two centuries of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory, in defiance of the papal bull ( Inter caetera ) and the Treaty of Tordesillas, which had divided the New World into two parts between Portugal and Spain. Frenchcolonists tried to settle in present-day Rio de Janeiro, from 1555 to 1567 (the so-called France Antarctique episode), and in present-day São Luís, from 1612 to 1614 (the so calledFrance Équinoxiale). Jesuits arrived early and established Sao Paulo, evangelising the natives. These native allies of the Jesuits assisted the Portuguese in driving out the French.
The unsuccessful Dutch intrusion into Brazil was longer lasting and more troublesome to Portugal ( Dutch Brazil ). Dutch privateers began by plundering the coast: they sackedBahia in 1604, and even temporarily captured the capital Salvador. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in the Nordeste and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without, however, penetrating the interior. But the colonists of the Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence in Recife of the great John Maurice of Nassau as governor. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch formally withdrew in 1661. Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remained of these failed attempts.
Mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously. Some slaves escaped from the plantations and tried to establish independent settlements (quilombos) in remote areas. The most important of these, the quilombo of Palmares, was the largest slave runaway settlement in the Americas, and was a consolidated kingdom of some 30,000 people at its height in the 1670s and 80s. However these settlements were mostly destroyed by government and private troops, which in some cases required long sieges and the use of artillery. Still, Africans became a substantial section of Brazilian population, and long before the end of slavery (1888) they had begun to merge with the European Brazilian population through miscegenation and mulatto work rights.Fossil records found in Minas Gerais show evidence that the area now called Brazil has been inhabited for at least 8,000 years by indigenous people.[1] The dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called "Indians" (índios) by the Portuguese, are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. The current most widely accepted view of anthropologists, linguists and geneticists is that they were part of the first wave of migrant hunters who came into the Americas from Asia, either by land, across the Bering Strait, or by coastal sea routes along the Pacific, or both.
The Andes and the mountain ranges of northern South America created a rather sharp cultural boundary between the settled agrarian civilizations of the west coast and the semi-nomadic tribes of the east, who never developed written records or permanent monumental architecture. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500. Archaeological remains (mainly pottery) indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations.
At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes. The indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast and along the banks of major rivers. Initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and miscegenation of the population began right away.
Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of Amazonian brazilwood (see List of meanings of countries' names) for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should civilize the Natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had unknowingly brought diseases with them, against which many Natives were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands. The diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans.Brazil was one of only three modern states in the Americas to have its own indigenous monarchy (the other two were Mexico and Haiti) - for a period of almost 90 years.
In 1808, the Portuguese court, fleeing from Napoleon's invasion of Portugal during the Peninsular War in a large fleet escorted by British men-of-war, moved the government apparatus to its then-colony, Brazil, establishing themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro. From there the Portuguese king ruled his huge empire for 13 years, and there he would have remained for the rest of his life if it were not for the turmoil aroused in Portugal due, among other reasons, to his long stay in Brazil after the end of Napoleon's reign.
The Empire Flag (October 12, 1822 - November 15, 1889)
In 1815 the king vested Brazil with the dignity of a united kingdom with Portugal and Algarves. When king João VI of Portugal left Brazil to return to Portugal in 1821, his elder son, Pedro, stayed in his stead as regent of Brazil. One year later, Pedro stated the reasons for the secession of Brazil from Portugal and led theIndependence War, instituted a constitutional monarchy in Brazil assuming its head as Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.
Also known as "Dom Pedro I", after his abdication in 1831 for political incompatibilities (displeased, both by the landed elites, who thought him too liberal and by the intellectuals, who felt he was not liberal enough), he left for Portugal leaving behind his five-year-old son as Emperor Pedro II, which left the country ruled by regentsbetween 1831 and 1840. This period was beset by rebellions of various motivations, such as the Sabinada, theWar of the Farrapos, the Malê Revolt,[6] Cabanagem and Balaiada, among others. After this period, Pedro II was declared of age and assumed his full prerogatives. Pedro II started a more-or-less parliamentary reign which lasted until 1889, when he was ousted by a coup d'état which instituted the republic in Brazil.
Externally, apart from the Independence war, stood out decades of pressure from the United Kingdom for the country to end its participation in the Atlantic slave trade, and the wars fought in the region of La Plata river: the Cisplatine War (in 2nd half of 1820s), the Platine War (in 1850s), the Uruguayan War and the Paraguayan War (in the 1860s). This last war against Paraguay also was the bloodiest and most expensive in South American history, after which the country entered a period that continues to the present day, averse to external political and military interventions.Pedro II was deposed on November 15, 1889, by a Republican military coup led by General Deodoro da Fonseca, who became the country's first de facto president through military ascension. The country's name became the Republic of the United States of Brazil(which in 1967 was changed to Federative Republic of Brazil.). Two military presidents ruled through four years of dictatorship amid conflicts, among the military and political elites (two Naval revolts, followed by an Federalist revolt), and a economic crisis due the effects of the burst of an financial bubble, the encilhamento.
From 1889 to 1930, although the country was formally a constitutional democracy, the First Republican Constitution, created in 1891, established that women and the illiterate (then the majority of the population) were prevented from voting. The presidentialism was adopted as the form of government and the State was divide into three powers (Legislative, Executive and Judiciary) "harmonics and independents of each other". The presidencial rule was fixed in four years, and the elections became direct.
After 1894, the presidence of republic was occupied by coffee farmers (oligarchies) from São Paulo and Minas Gerais, alternately. This policy was called política do café com leite (coffee and milk policy). The elections for president and governors was ruled by thePolítica dos Governadores (Governor's policy), in which they had mutual support to ensure the elections of some candidates. The exchanges of favors also happened among politicians and big landowners. They used the power to control the votes of population in return for favors (this was called coronelismo).
Between 1893 and 1926 several movements, civilians and military, shook the country. The military movements had their origins both in the lower officers' corps of the Army and Navy (which, dissatisfied with the regime, called for democratic changes) while the civilian ones, such Canudos and Contestado War, were usually led by messianic leaders, without conventional political goals.
Internationally, the country would stick to a course of conduct that extended throughout the twentieth century: an almost isolationist policy, interspersed with sporadic automatic alignments with major western powers, its main economic partners, in moments of high turbulence. Standing out from this period: the resolution of the Acreanian's Question and the tiny role in the World War I (basically limited to the anti-submarine warfare)
On April 22, 1500, a Portuguese navigator called Pedro Alvares Cabral reached the shores of Brazil. The country took its name from "brazilwood", a redwood tree commonly found along the Brazilian coastline that was ordinarily used to dye garments back in Europe.While Spanish navigators set out in search of a route to Asia by sailing westward from Europe, Portuguese sailors opted instead for sailing progressively southward along the African coast. Portuguese navigators reached the Cape of Good Hope at the southernmost tip of Africa in 1487, and in 1498, led by Vasco da Gama, opened the sea route from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean and then to the Far East.
In 1494, the "Treaty of Tordesillas" between Spain and Portugal settled the dispute about lands yet to be discovered. According to the treaty, territories lying east of an imaginary north-south line located 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands would belong to Portugal, and lands to the west of that imaginary line would be under Spanish control. This division, extending from pole to pole, dissected the easternmost part of the South American continent and defined Brazil's first frontier (although the discovery by Pedro Alvares Cabral did not take place until six years later, in 1500). Brazil's territory as shaped by the meridian of Tordesillas can be seen on the maps below.
In 1578, the King of Portugal died and left no successor. Seizing this opportunity to claim the throne in Lisbon for himself, the Spanish King Philip II united Spain and Portugal, which remained under his rule from 1580 to 1640.
Ironically, the sixty-year union between Portugal and Spain triggered a substantial expansion of the Brazilian territory. With the absence of boundaries, both Portuguese and Brazilian settlers began moving westward and further into Brazil's hinterland, thus unwittingly expanding the borders of the future independent country.
The main starting point for these explorations was the region of São Vicente in present-day São Paulo. These explorers were known as "Bandeirantes". In 1640, the Duke of Bragança, later Joao IV, was able to reclaim the Portuguese Crown, with the assistance of England and Holland. The lands that had been occupied west of the original Tordesillas remained in Portuguese hands afterwards.
In the beginning, Brazil's economy relied primarily on sugar production and the exploitation of gold and precious stones, along with cattle ranching and other agricultural activities. To carry out such endeavors, increasing tracts of South American uninhabited land were progressively incorporated into Brazil by Portuguese settlers.
The discovery of gold brought migrants from the coastal plantations over to the interior of the country together with new immigrants from Portugal. The boom in gold and diamond mining, like that of sugar, was followed by the rise of another important source of wealth for which Brazil is well known today - coffee growing. Coffee plantations drew even more foreign immigrants to the country.
These economic activites helped shape the country's territorial expansion up to the 19th century. Since then, borderlines were defined by diplomacy. Brazil did not fight any war for that purpose. All of its borders were negotiated peacefully with the neighbouring countries. In the maps below we can have an idea of the evolution on Brazil's borders.
In the first decade of the 19th century, Europe was in turmoil. France's attempt to dominate Europe met with English resistance, and, as consequence, Napoleon tried to prevent other countries from trading with England. Claiming neutrality, Portugal continued to honor previous trade treaties with England. But France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1807 and agreed to divide Portugal between them. Soon after that , Napoleon ordered an invasion of Portugal.
Before Napoleon's troops could reach Portugal, Queen Maria I and her son, Prince João VI (see picture above) left the country and sailed to Brazil. They arrived in January 1808, and remained until 1821. Napoleon's dominance of Portugal had ended in 1815, but Joao VI chose to stay in Rio de Janeiro, even after the death of his mother in 1816. In 1821, however, he yielded to political pressures from Portugal, and returned to Lisbon, leaving Pedro, the Crown Prince, in Rio as "Regent Viceroy ".
The presence of the royal family for a period of 14 years substantially changed Brazil's economic environment. The country came to know a higher level of autonomy and modernization. João VI nullified previous Portuguese laws that prohibited local manufaturing of textiles, gunpowder, and glass, as well as the building of wheat mills. These measures were adopted as a means to ease the transition toward political independence.
Back in Lisbon, politicians did not like the way things were going, whereas in Brazil Pedro's advisers promoted the idea of independence. Barely a year after João VI's return to Portugal, the Crown Prince proclaimed the independence from Portugal, on September 7, 1822, and had himself crowned Emperor of Brazil, under the name Pedro I. While the Spanish viceroyalties in the Americas had to fight fiercely for their independence, to end up as several different republics, Portugal and Brazil settled the matter by negotiation, with Great Britain acting as a broker.
When did Brazil become a Republic?
Brazil remained a monarchy for almost 70 years, that is, from 1822 to 1889. The transition from Monarchy to Republic took place without bloodshed. The absence of an "independence war" in Brazil is largely credited to the positive influence of the "enlightened" monarch Pedro II, who succeded Pedro I. Brazil became a federal republic in November 15, 1889.
Brazilian Flag after 1889
Did Brazil fight many wars?
Paraguay War
The history of Brazil is remarkably peaceful. Brazil has ten neighboring countries, yet the last war fought against any of them took place more than a century ago - a war against Paraguay, that lasted from 1864 to 1870.
In World War II, Brazil was part of the Allied forces. A 25,000-men Brazilian force (see the picture), attached to the U.S. Fifth Army, was sent to Italy. Brazil was the only country in the Americas, besides the U.S. and Canada, to send armed forces to fight in the Second World War.
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
Recent History
President Juscelino Kubitschek
From 1956 to 1960, Brazil experienced five years of high economic growth under President Juscelino Kubitschek.
In 1960, crowning his endeavor, the futuristic city of Brasilia was inaugurated as the new capital city.
Brasília, the capital of Brazil, inaugurated in 1960
From 1964 to 1985, Brazil, like many other Latin American countries, was under the rule of military leaders. It was the time of the so called "cold war" between the United States and the Soviet Union. Between 1964 and 1990 there were no popular elections for President. In the late 1970s the country gradually returned to democratic rule. In 1982, direct elections were held for state governorships for the first time since 1965, and in 1990 direct presidential elections took place.
