Catholicism

from the Catholic Encyclopedia

The term Counter-Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648. The name, though long in use among Protestant historians, has only recently been introduced into Catholic handbooks. The consequence is that it already has a meaning and an application, for which a word with a different nuance should perhaps have been chosen. For in the first place the name suggests that the Catholic movement came after the Protestant; whereas in truth the reform originally began in the Catholic Church, and Luther was a Catholic Reformer before he became a Protestant. By becoming a Protestant Reformer, he did indeed hinder the progress of the Catholic reformation, but he did not stop it. from A Catholic Dictionary, edited by Donald Attwater, Second edition, revised 1957

The Counter-Reformation is the name given to the Catholic movement of reform and activity which lasted for about one hundred years from the beginning of the Council of Trent (q.v., 1545), and was the belated answer to the threatening confusion and increasing attacks of the previous years. It was the work principally of the Popes St. Pius V and Gregory XIII and the Council itself in the sphere of authority, of SS. Philip Neri and Charles Borromeo in the reform of the clergy and of life, of St. Ignatius and the Jesuits in apostolic activity of St. Francis Xavier in foreign missions, and of St. Teresa in the purely contemplative life which lies behind them all. But these were not the only names nor was it a movement of a few only; the whole Church emerged from the 15th century purified and revivified. On the other hand, it was a reformation rather than a restoration; the unity of western Christendom was destroyed; the Church militant (those still on earth) led by the Company of Jesus adopted offence as the best means of defence and, though she gained as much as she lost in some sense, the Church did not recover the exercise of her former spiritual supremacy in actuality. from Modern Catholic Dictionary by John A. Hardon, S.J. Doubleday & Co., Inc. Garden City, NY 1980

A period of Catholic revival from 1522 to about 1648, better know as the Catholic Reform. It was an effort to stem the tide of Protestantism by genuine reform within the Catholic Church. There were political movements pressured by civil rules, and ecclesiastical movements carried out by churchmen in an attempt to restore genuine Catholic life by establishing new religious orders such as the Society of Jesus and restoring old orders to their original observances, such as the Carmelites under St. Teresa of Avila (1515-98). The main factors responsible for the Counter Reformation, however, were the papacy and the council of Trent (1545-63). Among church leaders St. Charles Borromeo (1538-84), Archbishop of Milan, enforced the reforms decreed by the council, and St. Francis de Sales of Geneva (1567-1622) spent his best energies in restoring genuine Catholic doctrine and piety. Among civil rulers sponsoring the needed reform were Philip II of Spain (1527-98) and Mary Tudor (1516-58), his wife, in England. Unfortunately this aspect of the reformation led to embitterment between England and Scotland, England and Spain, Poland and Sweden, and to almost two centuries of religious wars. As a result of the Counter Reformation, the Catholic Church became stronger in her institutional structure, more dedicated to the work of evangelization, and more influential in world affairs.

from

The Catechism of the Catholic Church, second edition, English translation 1994

766

The Church is born primarily of Christ's total self-giving for our salvation, anticipated in the institution of the Eucharist and fulfilled on the cross. "The origin and growth of the church are symbolized by the blood and water which flowed from the open side of Christ as he slept the sleep of death upon the cross that there came forth the 'wondrous sacrament of the whole Church.'" Sacrosanctum concilium 5) As Eve was formed from the sleeping Adam's side, so the church was born from the pierced heart of Christ hanging dead on the cross. (Cf. St. Ambrose, In Luc. 2, 85-89: J.P. Migne, ed., Patrologia Latina {Paris: 1841-1855} 15, 1666-1668)

767

"When the work which the Father gave the Son to do on earth was accomplished, the Holy Spirit was sent on the day of Pentecost in order that he might continually sanctify the Church." (Lumen gentium 4; cf. Jn 17:4) The "the Church was openly displayed to the crowds and the spread of the gospel among the nations, through preaching, was begun." (Ad gentes 4) As the "convocation" of all men for salvation, the Church in her very nature is missionary, sent by Christ to all the nations to make disciples of them. (Cf. Mt 28:19-20; Ad gentes 2; 5-6)

Catholic Answer It was the Catholic response to the protestant reformation (also called the Counter-Reformation), although the Catholic Reform actually started before the protestant revolt. It involved greater emphasis on the central power of the papacy, the clarification of a number of core doctrines and the refutation of Protestant beliefs at the Council of Trent, and the growth of popular religious movements at grass-roots levels such as the Society of Jesus to promote Catholic doctrines and root out heretical beliefs. To a large extent it did succeed but it failed in bringing many of those back to the church who had been lost, and the generations that followed who have been denied access to the sacraments.

from A Catholic Dictionary, edited by Donald Attwater, Second edition, revised 1957

The Counter-Reformation is the name given to the Catholic movement of reform and activity which lasted for about one hundred years from the beginning of the Council of Trent (q.v., 1545), and was the belated answer to the threatening confusion and increasing attacks of the previous years. It was the work principally of the Popes St. Pius V and Gregory XIII and the Council itself in the sphere of authority, of SS. Philip Neri and Charles Borromeo in the reform of the clergy and of life, of St. Ignatius and the Jesuits in apostolic activity of St. Francis Xavier in foreign missions, and of St. Teresa in the purely contemplative life which lies behind them all. But these were not the only names nor was it a movement of a few only; the whole Church emerged from the 15th century purified and revivified. On the other hand, it was a reformation rather than a restoration; the unity of western Christendom was destroyed; the Church militant (those still on earth) led by the Company of Jesus adopted offence as the best means of defence and, though she gained as much as she lost in some sense, the Church did not recover the exercise of her former spiritual supremacy in actuality.

The Catholic Church condemned Martin Luther as a heretic, excommunicated him from the Church and refuted those of his writings that were against the Faith. Ultimately, however, Martin Luther was a symptom to a much larger problem, for had it not been Luther, it would have been someone else. Had Luther not struck at the time he had, he would have just been another heresiarch, but the world was festering at the time, rulers were looking for political leverage to oust the Church, the printing press gave immeasurable power for those that applied its ability to replicate tracts, and a new class of society was looking to firmly establish itself where it could.

At the time, Europe had for a while been influenced by Humanism as well as an emerging middle class that was constantly struggling to forge its own place in the disintegrating feudal system. As the roads became safer and trade and travel increased, many old Greek and Roman texts reemerged from the monasteries and education geared up. Crusaders also brought back from the Holy Land many ancient parchments and works that the Muslims had already recovered and were studying themselves. The culmination of all this change and emergence was the Renaissance. Things began to change and progress so fast that the Church, which always worked very slowly, soon fell behind in addressing those issues that had come to light, both abuses and needs. Many make the sale of indulgences as the big issue, when in fact, it was mostly done by unscrupulous pardoners or slyly promoted by a handful of greedy Church officials and so was a rather petty thing. There were much more pressing matters, such as the relation of the Church to emerging nationalism and the immense political pressures that were surfacing, the threat of the invading Muslims, the loosening of the rubrics, multiplication of religious orders and devotions, challenges of humanistic philosophy against the theology of the Church, etc. The emerging Middle Class brought with it a rebellious streak that saw the desire for power without nobility, wealth without titles, education without responsibility and philosophy without theology. The entire social order was quaking and in the centuries ahead would finally end with revolutions in most every country.

In this time the Church began what has been called the "Counter-Reformation" in order to reinforce the Church and bolster the faithful against the rampant errors and rebellious ideologies that were so popular. The pinnacle of this movement was the Council of Trent, which blasted the errors, streamlined Church doctrine, the sacraments, further defined things to proof them against heresy and boldly set forth a direction for the Church to follow. As a result the Catholic heart of Europe ultimately survived the rippling Protestant revolt, though several nations and the northern regions proved highly susceptible. The Renaissance became harnessed by the Church in order to produce the height of Church architecture, music, art and theological studies and schools became defined and precise. The modern spirit, however, was deep set and there to stay and the Church has been battling with it ever since.

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from

Modern Catholic Dictionary by John A. Hardon, S.J. Doubleday & Co., Inc. Garden City, NY 1980

A period of Catholic revival from 1522 to about 1648, better know as the Catholic Reform. It was an effort to stem the tide of Protestantism by genuine reform within the Catholic Church. There were political movements pressured by civil rules, and ecclesiastical movements carried out by churchmen in an attempt to restore genuine Catholic life by establishing new religious orders such as the Society of Jesus and restoring old orders to their original observances, such as the Carmelites under St. Teresa of Avila (1515-98). The main factors responsible for the Counter Reformation, however, were the papacy and the council of Trent (1545-63). Among church leaders St. Charles Borromeo (1538-84), Archbishop of Milan, enforced the reforms decreed by the council, and St. Francis de Sales of Geneva (1567-1622) spent his best energies in restoring genuine Catholic doctrine and piety. Among civil rulers sponsoring the needed reform were Philip II of Spain (1527-98) and Mary Tudor (1516-58), his wife, in England. Unfortunately this aspect of the reformation led to embitterment between England and Scotland, England and Spain, Poland and Sweden, and to almost two centuries of religious wars. As a result of the Counter Reformation, the Catholic Church became stronger in her institutional structure, more dedicated to the work of evangelization, and more influential in world affairs.

Of course all Americans say the Pledge of Allegiance to the flag of the United States of America. That is a way in which we offer our confirmation of honor, respect and gratefulness to the flag of the United States of America, and for all for which she stands.

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The saying of the Pledge of Allegiance is not universal among "all Americans." Jehovah's Witnesses do not say the Pledge of Allegiance but instead stand at polite attention. They believe that the Pledge goes beyond a mere statement of respect but entails idolatry of the flag and country, which the Bible condemns. The Bible has many scriptures condemning idolatry, (eg. Ex. 20:4; Lev. 19:21; Isaiah 135:15-18)

The Pledge of Allegiance became an issue with Jehovah's Witnesses leading up to and during the Second Word War. In the face of increasing conflict around the world, many states enacted flag salute requirements. On June 3, 1935, Joseph Franklin Rutherford the President of The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society stated in an interview at a Witness convention that to salute an earthly emblem, ascribing salvation to it; was unfaithfulness to God. He stated that he would not do it. While this was not yet a written doctrine, individual families began making conscientious decisions to refuse to pledge the flag. The Witnesses' refusal to pledge, coupled with their refusal to serve in the military or to support in the war effort in any way, raised the ire of the American public. Their refusal would put them in the forefront of the fight for religious freedoms in America.

In late 1935, Witness Walter Gobitas' two children--Lilian, 12, and Billy, 10--were expelled from school in Minersville, Pa., because they refused to pledge the flag. The ensuing court battle led to the Supreme Court ruling of Gobitis vs. Minersville School District (1940) that the secular interests of the school district in fostering national patriotism overrode those of religious freedom. (The error in the family's name was due to a clerical error.) Pennsylvania's state flag salute was a secular policy enacted to encourage patriotism among school children and that the state's interest in "national cohesion" was "inferior to none in the hierarchy of legal issues". It was further stated that the proper place to make changes was through voting, not through the courts. The irony of this decision would not have been lost on the Witnesses since they refused to vote. By the end of 1940, the American Civil Liberties Union estimated that 1500 Witnesses had been assaulted in 335 different attacks.

Only three years later, the Supreme Court was to reverse itself in West Virginia Board of Education vs. Barnette (1943). (Again, the last name of the family would be misspelled--Barnette, instead of Barnett.) This time, the court would hold that Witness children could not be forced to pledge the flag. More importantly, school boards could not punish them or their parents for their refusal. Furthermore, they rejected the idea that legislatures, rather than the courts, were the proper place to address questions of religious liberty. Justice Robert Jackson wrote, "The very purpose of a Bill of Rights was to draw certain subjects from...beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. One's right to life, liberty, and property, to free speech, a free press, freedom of worship and assembly, may not be submitted to vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections." The court did not shy away from the similarities in this case and the enforced nationalism abroad. "Those who begin in coercive elimination of dissent soon find themselves exterminating dissenters," Jackson wrote.